Advances in Novel Formulations for Drug Delivery
1. Edition February 2023
576 Pages, Hardcover
Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBN:
978-1-394-16643-5
John Wiley & Sons
Further versions
ADVANCES in NOVEL FORMULATIONS for DRUG DELIVERY
The 27 chapters describe novel strategies for drug/nutraceutical delivery and embrace the development of formulations with herbal ingredients, while also highlighting disease therapeutics.
Drug delivery technology has witnessed many advancements purported to cater to the customized needs of its ultimate beneficiaries--the patients. Today, dosage forms are not confined to conventional tablets, capsules, or injectables, but have evolved to cover novel drug carriers such as particulates, vesicles, and many others. Nanotechnological advancements have played a major role in this paradigm shift in ways of delivering active pharmaceutical ingredients.
A new dimension in the use of food as medicine has also gained prominence in recent years. A portmanteau of nutrition and pharmaceuticals is "nutraceuticals," also known as functional foods and dietary supplements. The technologies which were earlier included in drug delivery have been attempted for the delivery of nutraceuticals as well. Herbal actives have received increased attention due to their low risk-to-benefit ratio. The field of drug delivery is quite dynamic in nature, as witnessed by its evolution from conventional dosage forms to nanotechnology-assisted drug products. A variety of formulations via different drug delivery routes have been developed to treat/cure/mitigate diseases or disorders.
This book, comprising of 27 chapters, is a thorough compilation of information relevant to drug delivery systems with an emphasis on products based on nanotechnology.
Audience
Researchers, scientists, industry professionals, formulators and product developers, regulatory agencies in a variety of settings including novel drug delivery research laboratories, pharmaceutical, and pharmacy industries, biomedical sciences, food and nutraceuticals manufacturers, and nanotechnology.
Preface xxiii
Part I: Novel Drug Carriers and Therapeutics 1
1 Nanoarchitectured Materials: Their Applications and Present Scenarios in Drug Delivery 3
Moreshwar P. Patil and Lalita S. Nemade
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Liposomes 4
1.3 Nanoparticles 8
1.3.1 Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery 9
1.4 Nanoemulsions 10
1.4.1 Advantages and Shortcomings of Nanoemulsions 10
1.4.2 Application of Nanoemulsion in Drug Delivery 10
1.5 Dendrimers 11
1.5.1 Synthesis of Dendrimers 12
1.5.2 Advantages of Dendrimers 12
1.5.3 Applications of Dendrimers in Drug Delivery 12
1.6 Aquasomes 15
1.6.1 Properties of Aquasomes 15
1.6.2 Application of Aquasomes in Drug Delivery 16
1.7 Nanogel 16
1.7.1 Properties of Nanogels 17
1.7.2 Nanogels in Drug Delivery 17
1.8 Quantum Dots 18
1.8.1 Applications of Quantum Dots in Drug Delivery 19
1.9 Carbon Nanotubes 19
1.9.1 Features of Carbon Nanotubes 19
1.9.2 Carbon Nanotubes in Drug Delivery 20
References 20
2 Nanopharmaceuticals for Drug Delivery 29
Swapnali Ashish Patil, Akshadha Atul Bakliwal, Vijay Sharad Chudiwal and Swati Gokul Talele
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 What Are Nanopharmaceuticals and What Do They Do? 30
2.3 Nanopharmaceuticals Importance 30
2.4 Nanotechnology 30
2.5 Pharmaceutical Companies and Nanotechnology 31
2.6 Applications and Advantages of Nanopharmaceuticals as Drug Carriers 32
2.7 Characteristics of Nanoparticles in Nanopharmaceuticals 32
2.7.1 Particle Size 32
2.7.2 Surface Properties of Nanoparticles 33
2.7.3 Drug Loading 33
2.7.4 Drug Release 34
2.8 Targeted Drug Delivery 34
2.9 Types of Nanoparticles 34
2.10 Nanoparticle Preparation Methods 35
2.11 Evaluation of Nanoparticles 35
2.12 Efficiency of Drug Entrapment 37
2.13 Particle Shape 37
2.14 Size of the Particles 37
2.15 Zeta Potential 37
2.16 Rise of Nanopharmaceuticals 38
2.17 Nanopharmaceuticals Approval Regulations (FDA Rules & Regulations) 39
2.18 Conclusions and Prospects for the Future 40
References 41
3 Applications and Prospects of Nanopharmaceuticals Delivery 45
Hemant K. S. Yadav, Fejer Al mohammedawi and Rawan J. I. Abujarad
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Nanopharmaceuticals 46
3.3 Development of Nanopharmaceuticals 46
3.3.1 From Lab to the Marketplace 46
3.3.2 Techniques 47
3.3.3 Cost 47
3.3.4 Ethics 48
3.3.5 Nanopharmaceuticals Approval Regulations (FDA Rules & Regulations) 48
3.4 Clinical Applications of Nanotechnology 49
3.4.1 Diagnostic Applications 49
3.4.1.1 Detection 50
3.4.1.2 Protein Chips 50
3.4.1.3 Individual Target Probes 50
3.4.1.4 Nanotechnology as a Tool in Imaging 51
3.4.1.5 Sparse Cell Detection 51
3.4.2 Therapeutic Applications 51
3.4.2.1 Surfaces 51
3.4.2.2 Gene Delivery 51
3.4.2.3 Drug Delivery 52
3.4.2.4 Liposomes 52
3.4.2.5 Nanotechnology in Orthopedic Applications 52
3.4.2.6 Nanotechnology in Cardiac Therapy 53
3.4.2.7 Nanotechnology in Dental Care 53
3.4.2.8 Biomolecular Engineering 53
3.4.2.9 Biopharmaceuticals 53
3.5 Nanopharmaceuticals Delivery--Recent Applications 54
3.5.1 Nanoparticulate Systems for Vaccine 54
3.5.1.1 Polyanhydride-Based NPs 54
3.5.1.2 Biodegradable Synthetic PLGA NPs 54
3.5.1.3 Liposome-Based NPs 55
3.5.1.4 Polysaccharide-Based NPs 55
3.5.2 Chemotherapy 55
3.5.2.1 Increasing the Concentration of Chemotherapeutic Agents in Tumor Tissue 56
3.5.3 Drug/Gene Delivery 57
3.5.3.1 Nanoparticles Used in Drug Delivery System 58
3.5.3.2 Cellulose 59
3.6 Nanotechnology in Neurodegenerative Disorders Treatment 59
3.7 Future Perspective 59
3.8 Issues with Current Nanopharmaceutical Concepts 60
3.8.1 Large-Scale Manufacturing 60
3.8.2 Biological Challenges 62
3.8.3 Intellectual Property (IP) 62
3.8.4 Biocompatibility and Safety 63
3.8.5 Government Regulations 63
3.9 Conclusion 64
References 64
4 Nanomedicine Regulation and Future Prospects 67
md Anwar Nawaz R., Darul Raiyaan G. I., Sivakumar K. and Kantha D. Arunachalam
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Importance of Regulation of Nanomedicine 68
4.3 Regulatory Challenges Faced by Nanomaterial in Medicine 68
4.3.1 Performing Various Functions 69
4.3.2 Nanomedicine Classification Issues 69
4.3.3 Variation in Size of the Particle 69
4.3.4 Manufacturing Process 69
4.3.5 Difficulties to Create CQA 70
4.3.6 Nanotoxicology and Cellular Response 70
4.3.7 Administering Right Doses 71
4.3.8 Pharmacokinetics 71
4.3.9 Developing Guidelines 71
4.4 Nanomedicine Future Aspects 71
4.5 Challenges that Threaten the Future of Nanomedicine 72
4.5.1 Financial Crisis 72
4.5.2 Lack of Confidence 72
4.5.3 Potential Dangers 72
4.5.4 Unsuccessful Patenting 73
4.5.5 Breakdowns in the Pharmaceuticals and Financial Markets 73
4.5.6 Limited Regulation 74
4.6 Future Prospects for Nanomedicine 74
4.6.1 Emerging Nanomaterials 75
4.6.2 Personalized Nanomedicine 75
4.6.3 Nanorobots and Nanodevices 75
4.6.4 Orthopedic Augmentations and Cytocompatibility 76
4.6.5 Cardiology and Nanotechnology 76
4.6.6 Cancer and Nanotechnology 77
4.6.7 Napt 77
4.6.8 Gene, Protein, Lab-on-a-Chip Devices 78
4.6.9 Polymeric Nanoparticles in Medicine 78
References 79
5 Nanotechnology Application in Drug Delivery for Medicinal Plants 81
Bui Thanh Tung, Duong Van Thanh and Nguyen Phuong Thanh
5.1 Introduction 81
5.1.1 Nanodrug Delivery Systems (NDDS) 81
5.2 Nanoherbals 83
5.2.1 Cucuma longa (Cucurmin) 83
5.2.2 Gingko biloba 84
5.2.3 Artemisia 85
5.2.4 Silybum marianum--Silymarin 85
5.2.5 Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen) 88
5.2.6 Glycyrrhiza glabra (L.) 88
5.2.7 Camellia sinensis (Green tea) 88
5.2.8 Camptotheca acuminata 91
5.2.9 Leea indica 91
5.2.10 Ziziphus mauritiana (Malay apple) 91
5.2.11 Cuscuta chinensis 91
5.3 Conclusion 92
References 92
6 Nanosystems Trends in Nutraceutical Delivery 97
Aristote Buya
6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Classification of Nutraceuticals 98
6.3 Biopharmaceutical Issues Associated with Nutraceuticals 101
6.4 Nanosystems for Delivery of Nutraceuticals 101
6.4.1 Nanoemulsions 101
6.4.2 Self-Emulsifying Systems 105
6.4.3 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers 105
6.4.4 Liposomes 106
6.4.5 Polymeric Nanoparticles 107
6.4.6 Inorganic Nanoparticles 107
6.5 Challenges 108
6.6 Market Potential 110
6.7 Conclusion and Perspective 111
References 111
7 Nanoencapsulated Systems for Delivery of Phytopharmaceuticals 127
Jacqueline Renovato-Núñez, Luis Enrique Cobos-Puc, Ezequiel Viveros-Valdez, Anna Iliná, Elda Patricia Segura-Ceniceros, Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera and Sonia Yesenia Silva-Belmares
7.1 Introduction 127
7.1.1 Nanoencapsulation Techniques in Phytopharmaceuticals 128
7.1.1.1 Physical-Chemical Techniques 129
7.1.1.2 Chemicals Techniques 130
7.1.1.3 Mechanical Techniques 131
7.1.2 Characterization of Nanoencapsulates 132
7.1.2.1 Morphological Characterization 132
7.1.2.2 Physicochemical Characterization 134
7.1.3 Nanoencapsulated Systems for Free Delivery of Phytopharmaceuticals 137
7.1.4 Studies to Evaluate Phytopharmaceuticals Nanoencapsulates 141
7.2 Conclusions 144
References 145
8 Topical Drug Delivery Using Liposomes and Liquid Crystalline Phases for Skin Cancer Therapy 153
Karina Alexandre Barros Nogueira, Jéssica Roberta Pereira Martins, Thayane Soares Lima, Jose Willams Bandeira Alves Junior, Alanna Letícia do Carmo Aquino, Lorena Maria Ferreira de Lima, Josimar O. Eloy and Raquel Petrilli
8.1 Introduction 153
8.2 Liposomes for Topical Application 156
8.2.1 Development of Liposomal Nanoparticles 156
8.3 Liquid Crystals and Liquid Crystalline Nanodispersions for Topical Application 162
8.3.1 Characterization Techniques 164
8.4 Physical Methods Applied to Nanoparticles Delivery 165
8.4.1 Sonophoresis 167
8.4.2 Microneedles 168
8.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 169
Acknowledgements 169
References 169
9 Vesicular Drug Delivery in Arthritis Treatment 177
Nilesh Gorde, Sandeep O. Waghulde, Ajay Kharche and Mohan Kale
9.1 Introduction 177
9.2 Skin Penetration Pathways 178
9.2.1 Intercellular Pathway 179
9.2.2 Transcellular Pathway 179
9.2.3 Appendgeal Pathway 179
9.3 Principles of Drug Permeation Through Skin 180
9.4 Problems Associated with Conventional Dosage Forms 180
9.5 Novel Treatment Strategies for Arthritis 182
9.5.1 Traditional Liposomes as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 183
9.5.2 Transferosomes (Ultradeformable Liposomes) as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 183
9.5.3 Ethosomes as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 184
9.5.4 Niosomes as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 185
9.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 187
References 187
10 Perspectives of Novel Drug Delivery in Mycoses 197
D. Maheswary, Kakithakara Vajravelu Leela and Sujith Ravi
10.1 Introduction 197
10.2 Role of Conventional Drugs in Antifungal Therapy 198
10.3 Mechanism of Action of Conventional Antifungals 198
10.4 Summary of Nanoparticles and Their Role in Antifungal Therapy 199
10.4.1 Lipid Nanoparticles 199
10.4.2 Liposome 200
10.4.3 Transfersomes 200
10.4.4 Transethosomes 200
10.4.5 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN) 200
10.4.6 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) 200
10.4.7 Polymer Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles (PLN) 200
10.4.8 Polymeric Nanoparticles 201
10.4.9 Microsponge and Nanosponge Systems 201
10.4.10 Polymeric Micelles 201
10.4.11 Polymersomes 201
10.4.12 Dendrimers 202
10.4.13 Metallic Nanoparticles 202
10.5 Other Drug Delivery Systems 202
10.5.1 Niosomes 202
10.5.2 Spanlastics 202
10.5.3 Microemulsions and Nanoemulsions 202
10.5.4 Silicon Dioxide Nanoparticles 203
10.6 Conclusion 203
References 203
11 Nano-Based Drug Delivery in Eliminating Tuberculosis 207
Anusha Gopinathan, Shweta Sagar Naik, Leela K.V. and Sujith Ravi
11.1 Introduction 208
11.1.1 Latent and Active Tuberculosis 208
11.1.2 Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) 209
11.1.3 Extensively Drug-Resistant TB 209
11.2 Antitubercular Therapy 209
11.3 Therapies Based on Nanotechnology 211
11.3.1 Nanoparticles for Anti-TB Therapy 211
11.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanoparticles 211
11.3.3 Types of Nanoparticles and Their Characteristics 212
11.3.3.1 TB Dendrimers 212
11.3.3.2 Cyclodextrins 213
11.3.3.3 Polymeric Micelles 213
11.3.3.4 Liposomes 213
11.3.3.5 Nanoemulsions 214
11.3.3.6 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 214
11.3.3.7 Niosomes 214
11.3.3.8 Polymeric Nanoparticles 214
11.4 Routes of Administration of Nanoparticles 215
11.4.1 Oral Administration of Nanoparticles 215
11.4.2 Inhalational Administration of Nanoparticles 215
11.4.3 Intravenous Administration of Nanoparticles 215
11.4.4 Other Routes of Administration 216
11.5 Conclusion 216
References 216
12 Promising Approaches in Drug Delivery Against Resistant Bacteria 219
Shweta Sagar Naik, Anusha G., KakithakaraVajravelu Leela and Sujith Ravi
12.1 Introduction 219
12.2 Drug Delivery Systems 220
12.2.1 Microneedles 220
12.2.2 Nanoparticles 221
12.2.2.1 Inorganic Nanoparticles 222
12.2.2.2 Polymer-Based Nanomedicines 222
12.2.3 Lipid-Based Nanoformulations 223
12.2.4 Stimuli-Responsive Nanocarriers 224
12.2.4.1 Endogenous Stimuli 224
12.2.4.2 Exogeneous Stimuli 225
12.2.5 Nanogels 226
12.2.6 Nanofibers 226
12.2.7 Biomedical Implants 226
12.2.8 Wound Dressing 227
12.3 Biofilm Disruption 227
12.4 Conclusion 227
References 228
13 Emulgels: A Novel Approach for Enhanced Topical Drug Delivery Systems 231
Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Shradhanjali Singh, Amit Kumar Singh, Anil Kumar Singh and Divya Rani Sharma
13.1 Introduction 231
13.2 Approaches Used for Topical Drug Delivery 232
13.3 Factors Affecting Topical Absorption of Drug 233
13.4 Drug Delivery Across the Skin 233
13.5 Emulgels 234
13.5.1 Types of Emulgels 234
13.5.2 Advantages of Emulgel 235
13.5.3 Rationale of Emulgel as a Topical Drug Delivery System 236
13.5.4 Formulation Considerations 237
13.5.5 Excipients Used in the Formulation of Emulgel 238
13.5.5.1 Vehicle 238
13.5.5.2 Emulsifying Agents 238
13.5.5.3 Gelling Agent 242
13.5.5.4 Penetration Enhancers 244
13.5.5.5 Preservatives 245
13.5.5.6 Antioxidants 245
13.5.5.7 Humectant 246
13.5.6 Formulation Methods 246
13.5.7 Routes of Administration for Emulgel Formulation 248
13.5.8 Evaluation of Emulgels 248
13.5.8.1 Physical Appearance 252
13.5.8.2 Spreading Coefficient 252
13.5.8.3 Rheological Studies 252
13.5.8.4 Globule Size and its Distribution in Emulgel 252
13.5.8.5 Swelling Index 252
13.5.8.6 Extrudability Study of Topical Emulgel (Tube Test) 253
13.5.8.7 Skin Irritation Test (Patch Test) 253
13.5.8.8 Drug Content Determination 253
13.5.8.9 In Vitro Release/Permeation Studies 253
13.5.8.10 Ex Vivo Bioadhesive Strength Measurement of Topical Emulgel (Mice Shaven Skin) 254
13.5.8.11 Microbiological Assay 254
13.5.8.12 Drug Release Kinetic Study 254
13.5.8.13 Stability Studies 255
13.5.9 Marketed Preparations 255
13.5.10 Future Prospective of Emulgel as Topical Drug Delivery 256
13.5.11 Therapeutic Profile of Emulgel 258
13.6 Conclusions 258
References 258
14 Electrospun Nanofibers in Drug Delivery 263
Sathish Kumar Karuppannan, Saravannan Mani, Jayandra Bushion, Mohammed Junaid Hussain Dowlath and Kantha Deivi Arunachalam
14.1 Introduction 263
14.2 Electrospinning Setup 264
14.3 Polymers Used to Produce Electrospun Nanofibers 264
14.4 Drug Release 265
14.5 Matrix Type NFs 266
14.5.1 Monolithic 266
14.5.2 Blended NFs 266
14.6 Core-Shell Nanofibers 266
14.6.1 Multimatrix Core-Shell NFs 267
14.6.2 Reservoir Type Core-Shell NFs 267
14.7 Electrospun Nanofiber for Drug Delivery Applications 267
14.7.1 Nucleic Acid Delivery Using NFs 267
14.7.2 Antibiotics Delivery Using NFs 268
14.7.3 Vaginal Drug Delivery Using NFs 269
14.7.4 Ocular Drug Delivery Using NFs 269
14.7.5 Other Drug Delivery Using NFs 270
14.8 Conclusion 271
References 272
Part II: Drug Carriers in Drug Delivery 279
15 Role of Nanotechnology-Based Materials in Drug Delivery 281
Manasa R. and Mahesh Shivananjappa
15.1 Introduction 281
15.2 Nano-Based Drug Delivery Systems 282
15.3 Types of Nanoparticles 282
15.3.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles (PNPs) 282
15.3.2 Dendrimers 284
15.3.3 Polymeric Micelles 286
15.3.4 Liposomes 288
15.3.5 Quantum Dots (QDs) 290
15.3.6 Nanocrystals 291
15.3.7 Gold Nanoparticles 291
15.3.8 Carbon Nanoparticles 294
15.3.8.1 CNTs 294
15.3.8.2 CNH 295
15.3.8.3 Fullerenes 295
15.3.9 Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPs) 296
15.4 Advantages of Nanoparticles 298
15.5 Toxicity of Nanoparticles 299
15.6 Conclusion 299
References 299
16 Nanomedicine Drug Delivery System 309
Akshada Atul Bakliwal, Swapnali Ashish Patil, Vijay Sharad Chudiwal, Swati Gokul Talele, Gokul Shravan Talele and Anil Govindrao Jadhav
16.1 Introduction 309
16.2 Background 312
16.3 Five Overlapping Subthemes of Nanomedicine 312
16.4 How Nanomedicine Work? 313
16.5 Nanomedicine for Screening of Individuals with Serious Diseases 313
16.6 Objectives of Nanomedicine 313
16.7 Advantages of Nanomedicine 314
16.8 Physiological Principles for Nanomedicines 315
16.9 Nanotoxicology from Nanomedicines 315
16.9.1 Health and Safety Issues 316
16.9.2 Cell Death and Altered Gene Expression 316
16.9.3 Cell Death and Gene Therapy 316
16.9.4 Pseudoallergy and Idiosyncratic Reactions 317
16.9.5 Cytotoxicity 318
16.9.6 Implications for Nanotoxicology from Nonmedical Nanoparticles 318
16.10 Nanomedicine Applications 318
16.10.1 Analytical and Diagnostic Tools 318
16.10.1.1 In Vitro Diagnostic Devices 319
16.10.1.2 In Vivo Imaging 320
16.10.2 Drug Delivery 320
16.10.2.1 Micelles 321
16.10.2.2 Nanoemulsions 321
16.10.2.3 Solid Nanoparticles 321
16.10.3 Regenerative Medicine 321
16.11 Toxicological and Ethical Issues in Nanomedicine 322
16.11.1 Toxicity Issues 322
16.11.2 Ethical Issues 323
16.12 Conclusions 323
References 324
17 Nanocarriers-Based Topical Formulations for Acne Treatment 327
Júlia Scherer Santos
17.1 Introduction 327
17.2 Acne Therapeutics 328
17.2.1 Nanocarriers Toward Topical Acne Therapy 329
17.3 Efficacy and Safety of Nanotechnology-Based Acne Therapeutics 330
17.3.1 Ex Vivo and In Vitro Assays 331
17.3.2 Animal Assays 332
17.3.3 Clinical Assays 332
17.4 Improvement of Acne Therapy by Nanocarrier-Based Formulations 332
17.4.1 Conventional Drugs in Nanocarriers 334
17.4.2 Alternatives Drugs in Nanocarriers 335
17.5 Conclusion 336
References 336
18 Emerging Trends of Ocular Drug Delivery 341
Sora Yasri and Viroj Wiwanitkit
18.1 Introduction 341
18.2 Barriers to Ocular Drug Delivery 342
18.3 Classical Drug Delivery Technology 342
18.3.1 Anterior Segment 343
18.3.2 Posterior Segment 343
18.4 Novel Interventions for Ocular Drug Delivery 343
18.4.1 Ocular Implants 343
18.4.2 Punctum Plugs 344
18.4.3 Drug-Eluting Contact Lenses 344
18.4.4 Ocular Iontophoresis 345
18.4.5 Intravitreal Implants 345
18.4.6 Ocular Vaccination 346
18.5 Applied Nanotechnology for Ocular Drug Delivery 346
18.5.1 Nanomicelle 346
18.5.2 Liposomes 347
18.5.3 Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles 347
18.5.4 Niosomes 347
18.5.5 Nanospheres 347
18.5.6 Nanocapsules 347
18.5.7 Dendrimers 348
18.5.8 Nanowafers 348
18.5.9 Micronanosurgery for Ocular Drug Delivery 348
18.6 Conclusion 348
References 349
19 Microspheres: An Overview on Recent Advances in Novel Drug Delivery System 355
Sarang Kumar Jain, Swati Saxena and Raj K. Keservani
19.1 Introduction 355
19.2 Advantages of Novel Drug Delivery System 356
19.3 Classification of Novel Drug Delivery System 356
19.3.1 Microspheres 356
19.3.1.1 Types of Microspheres 356
19.3.2 Ideal Properties of Microparticulate Carriers 357
19.3.3 Polymers Used in Preparation of Microspheres 358
19.3.4 Advantages of Microspheres 359
19.3.5 Disadvantages of Microspheres 359
19.3.6 Classification of Microspheres 359
19.3.6.1 Bioadhesive Microspheres 359
19.3.6.2 Magnetic Microspheres 359
19.3.6.3 Floating Microspheres 360
19.3.6.4 Radioactive Microspheres 360
19.3.6.5 Polymeric Microspheres 360
19.3.7 Method of Preparation of Microspheres 360
19.3.7.1 Single Emulsion Technique 361
19.3.7.2 Double Emulsion Method 361
19.3.7.3 Polymerization Technique 362
19.3.7.4 Phase Separation Coacervation Technique 362
19.3.7.5 Spray Drying and Spray Congealing Method 363
19.3.7.6 Solvent Evaporation Method 363
19.3.8 Evaluation Parameters of Microspheres 364
19.3.8.1 Particle Size and Shape 364
19.3.8.2 Chemical Analysis by Electron Spectroscopy 364
19.3.8.3 FTIR Spectroscopy 364
19.3.8.4 Determination of Density 364
19.3.8.5 Isoelectric Point Determination 364
19.3.8.6 Entrapment Efficiency 364
19.3.8.7 Angle of Contact 364
19.3.8.8 Swelling Index 365
19.3.8.9 Production Yield 365
19.3.8.10 In Vitro Drug Release Study 365
19.3.8.11 Drug Release Kinetics 365
19.3.8.12 Stability Studies 365
19.3.9 Applications of Microspheres 365
References 366
20 Drug Delivery Systems and Oral Biofilm 367
Elda Patricia Segura Ceniceros, Luis Méndez González, Reginaldo Tijerina, Eduardo Osorio Ramos, Francisco Javier Mendoza González, Verónica Leticia Rodríguez Contreras, Alejandra Isabel Vargas Segura and Luis Antonio Vázquez Olvera
20.1 Introduction 368
20.2 Oral Biofilm 369
20.2.1 Biofilm Related Infections in The Oral Cavity 371
20.2.1.1 Oral Biofilm and Periodontal Disease 371
20.2.1.2 Oral Biofilm and Endodontic Infections 373
20.2.1.3 Oral Biofilm and Dental Caries 373
20.3 Drug Delivery Systems 374
20.3.1 Nanoparticles 375
20.3.2 Hydrogels 375
20.3.3 Dendrimers 376
20.4 Applications of Drug Delivery Systems for Treatment of Oral Biofilm Infection 376
20.4.1 DDS and Dental Caries 377
20.4.2 DDS and Periodontal Disease 378
20.4.3 DDS and Other Oral Pathologies 378
20.5 Conclusion 379
References 379
21 Oral Drug Delivery System: An Overview on Recent Advances in Novel Drug Delivery System 383
Sarang Kumar Jain, Ankita Sahu and Raj K. Keservani
21.1 Introduction 383
21.1.1 Oral Route 383
21.1.2 Oral Health 385
21.1.3 Oral Hygiene 386
21.2 Oral Drug Administration Sites 387
21.2.1 Oral Mucosal Drug Delivery System 387
21.2.1.1 Physiology of Oral Mucosa 388
21.2.1.2 Importance of Saliva and Mucin 388
21.2.2 Buccal and Sublingual Drug Absorption 389
21.3 Factors Affecting Drug Absorption 389
21.3.1 Lipid Solubility, pH, and Degree of Ionization 390
21.3.2 Molecule Weight and Size of Drug 390
21.3.3 Formulation Physiochemical Properties Related Factors 390
21.3.4 Permeability Enhancer 390
21.4 Drug Delivery for Periodontitis 391
21.4.1 Periodontal Pocket 391
21.4.1.1 Classification of Periodontal Pockets According to their Morphology 391
21.4.1.2 Classification of Periodontal Pocket According to the Involvement of Tooth Surfaces 392
21.5 Oral Periodontitis Drug Delivery System 393
21.5.1 Antibacterial DDS for Periodontitis 393
21.5.2 Remineralizing DDS 393
21.5.3 Inflammation Modulating and Alveolar Bone Repairing DDS for Periodontitis 394
21.5.3.1 DDS for Peri-Implantitis 394
21.6 Teeth Treatments 394
21.7 Periodontal Local Drug Delivery 395
21.8 Carriers of Oral and Periodontitis Drug Delivery System 395
21.8.1 Hydrogel 396
21.8.2 Dendrimers 396
21.8.3 Chewing Gum 396
21.8.4 Lozenges 397
21.8.5 Tablets 397
21.9 Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery System/Buccal Adhesive Drug Delivery System 397
21.9.1 Patches and Films 398
21.9.2 Oral Suspension 398
21.9.3 Spray 398
21.9.4 Liposome 398
21.9.5 Nanoparticles 399
21.9.6 Laminated Film 399
21.9.7 Injectable Gels 399
21.9.8 Fibers 399
21.9.9 Strips and Compacts 399
References 400
22 Cancer Nanotheranostics: A Review 401
Ozge Esim and Canan Hascikek
22.1 Introduction 401
22.1.1 Lipid and Polymer-Based Nanosystems 403
22.1.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles 413
22.1.3 Quantum Dots (QD) 418
22.1.4 Other Metal-Derived Nanoparticles 421
22.2 Conclusion 425
References 425
23 Nanomedicine in Lung Cancer Therapy 433
Jagdale Swati C., HableAsawaree A. and ChabukswarAnuruddha R.
23.1 Introduction 433
23.2 Nanotechnology 434
23.3 Nanomedicines for Lung Cancer Therapy 435
23.3.1 Nanoparticles 436
23.3.1.1 Gold and Silver Nanoparticles 436
23.3.1.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 437
23.3.1.3 Inhalable Nanoparticles 437
23.3.2 Micelles 437
23.3.3 Dendrimers 439
23.3.4 Liposome 439
23.3.5 Carbon Nanotubes 440
23.3.6 Quantum Dots 441
23.3.7 Nanofibers 442
23.3.8 Nanoshells 442
23.4 Evaluation of Nanoformulations 442
23.5 Application of Nanoformulations 443
23.6 Marketed Therapies 444
23.7 Challenges 445
23.8 Potential 445
23.9 Future Scope 446
23.10 Conclusion 446
References 446
24 Delivering Herbal Drugs Using Nanotechnology 449
Manasa R. and Mahesh Shivananjappa
24.1 Introduction 449
24.2 Methods of Preparation of Nanoparticles 450
24.3 Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) for Herbal Drugs 451
24.3.1 Liposomes 451
24.3.2 Phytosomes 454
24.3.3 Transferosome 457
24.3.4 Niosomes 458
24.3.5 Ethosomes 459
24.3.6 Dendrimers 459
24.3.7 Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System (SNEDDS) 462
24.3.8 Self-Micro Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SMEDDS) 463
24.4 Conclusion 464
References 464
25 Nanoherbals Drug Delivery System for Treatment of Chronic Asthma 473
Harsh Yadav, Satish Dubey, Naureen Shaba Khan and Ashwini Kumar Dixit
25.1 Introduction 474
25.2 Mechanism of Asthma Physiopathology 474
25.3 Asthma Etiology 475
25.4 Severity of Asthma 475
25.5 Asthma Phenotypes 475
25.6 Asthma Epidemiology 476
25.7 Asthma Treatment 476
25.7.1 Adverse Effects of Current Treatment Techniques 477
25.8 Need of Natural Products as Alternative 477
25.9 Selected Medicinal Plants in Asthma Treatment 478
25.9.1 Piper betel Linn 478
25.9.2 Bacopa monnieri L. 479
25.9.3 Momordica charantia 479
25.9.4 Ficus bengalensis (Linn.) 479
25.9.5 Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon 479
25.10 Potentials of Nanotechnology in Asthma Drug Delivery 479
25.11 Nanoherbals as Asthma Drug Delivery System 482
25.12 Future Prospectus of Nanoherbal Drug Delivery 483
25.13 Conclusion 484
References 484
26 Nutrients Delivery for Management and Prevention of Diseases 491
Darul Raiyaan G. I., Sameera Khathoon A. and Kantha D. Arunachalam
26.1 Introduction 491
26.2 Nutrients in Management and Prevention of Disease 492
26.2.1 Herbal Nutrients 492
26.2.2 FDA Regulations on Herbal Drugs 493
26.3 Phenolic Nutraceuticals 493
26.3.1 Polyphenols and Neurodegeneration 494
26.3.2 Polyphenols and Brain Tumors 494
26.3.3 Phenols and Other Cancer Treatments 494
26.3.4 Phenols and Hepatotoxicity 495
26.3.5 Clinical Trials 496
26.3.6 Curcumin 496
26.4 Routes for Nutrients Delivery 497
26.4.1 Oral Route 497
26.4.2 Intranasal Delivery 497
26.4.3 Transdermal Route 497
26.5 Nanoparticle-Based Nutrients Delivery System 498
26.5.1 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) 498
26.5.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) 499
26.5.3 Liposomes 499
26.5.4 Nanocrystals 499
26.5.5 alpha-Lactalbumin 500
26.5.6 Carbon Nanotubes 500
26.5.7 Nanocochleates 500
26.5.8 Nanosized Self-Assembled Liquid Structures 500
26.5.9 Polysaccharide-Based Nanoscale Delivery of Nutrients 500
26.5.10 Chitosan 501
26.5.11 Alginate 501
26.5.12 Pectin 502
26.5.13 Gum Arabic 502
26.5.14 Cashew Gum 503
26.6 Protein-Based Nanoscale Delivery of Nutrients 503
26.6.1 Zein 503
26.6.2 Gliadin 503
26.6.3 Soy Protein Isolates (SPI) 504
26.6.4 Whey Protein 504
26.6.5 Casein 505
26.6.6 Other Proteins 505
26.7 Micelles 505
26.8 Advantages of Nanomaterials in Nutraceuticals 507
26.9 Safety and Toxicity of Nanostructures Applied in Food Systems 509
26.10 Conclusion 509
References 509
27 Nanonutraceuticals for Drug Delivery 521
Charu Gupta and Dhan Prakash
27.1 Introduction 521
27.2 Approaches to Enhance Oral Bioavailability of Nutraceuticals 522
27.2.1 Protection of Labile Compounds 523
27.2.2 Extension of Gastric Retention Time 523
27.2.3 Intonation of Metabolic Activities 523
27.3 Carriers for Nutraceutical Delivery 523
27.3.1 Nanoparticles for Nutraceuticals Delivery 524
27.3.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) for Nutraceutical Delivery 524
27.3.3 Niosomes 525
27.3.4 Nanospheres 525
27.3.5 Nanoliposomes 525
27.3.6 Nanofibers 526
27.3.7 Nanoemulsion 526
27.4 Nanotechnology in Food Sector 527
27.4.1 Nanotechnology in Nutraceuticals 527
27.4.2 Nanotechnology in Medications 528
27.4.3 Commercial Nanonutraceuticals 533
27.4.4 Nanosized Self-Assembled Structured Liquids 534
27.5 Delivery of Nutraceuticals 536
27.5.1 In-Feed or Oral Nanodelivery 536
27.5.2 Dermal Delivery 537
27.5.3 Ophthalmic Delivery 537
27.6 Constraints in Nanodrug Delivery Systems 537
27.7 Conclusion 537
Acknowledgments 538
References 538
Index 541
Part I: Novel Drug Carriers and Therapeutics 1
1 Nanoarchitectured Materials: Their Applications and Present Scenarios in Drug Delivery 3
Moreshwar P. Patil and Lalita S. Nemade
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Liposomes 4
1.3 Nanoparticles 8
1.3.1 Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery 9
1.4 Nanoemulsions 10
1.4.1 Advantages and Shortcomings of Nanoemulsions 10
1.4.2 Application of Nanoemulsion in Drug Delivery 10
1.5 Dendrimers 11
1.5.1 Synthesis of Dendrimers 12
1.5.2 Advantages of Dendrimers 12
1.5.3 Applications of Dendrimers in Drug Delivery 12
1.6 Aquasomes 15
1.6.1 Properties of Aquasomes 15
1.6.2 Application of Aquasomes in Drug Delivery 16
1.7 Nanogel 16
1.7.1 Properties of Nanogels 17
1.7.2 Nanogels in Drug Delivery 17
1.8 Quantum Dots 18
1.8.1 Applications of Quantum Dots in Drug Delivery 19
1.9 Carbon Nanotubes 19
1.9.1 Features of Carbon Nanotubes 19
1.9.2 Carbon Nanotubes in Drug Delivery 20
References 20
2 Nanopharmaceuticals for Drug Delivery 29
Swapnali Ashish Patil, Akshadha Atul Bakliwal, Vijay Sharad Chudiwal and Swati Gokul Talele
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 What Are Nanopharmaceuticals and What Do They Do? 30
2.3 Nanopharmaceuticals Importance 30
2.4 Nanotechnology 30
2.5 Pharmaceutical Companies and Nanotechnology 31
2.6 Applications and Advantages of Nanopharmaceuticals as Drug Carriers 32
2.7 Characteristics of Nanoparticles in Nanopharmaceuticals 32
2.7.1 Particle Size 32
2.7.2 Surface Properties of Nanoparticles 33
2.7.3 Drug Loading 33
2.7.4 Drug Release 34
2.8 Targeted Drug Delivery 34
2.9 Types of Nanoparticles 34
2.10 Nanoparticle Preparation Methods 35
2.11 Evaluation of Nanoparticles 35
2.12 Efficiency of Drug Entrapment 37
2.13 Particle Shape 37
2.14 Size of the Particles 37
2.15 Zeta Potential 37
2.16 Rise of Nanopharmaceuticals 38
2.17 Nanopharmaceuticals Approval Regulations (FDA Rules & Regulations) 39
2.18 Conclusions and Prospects for the Future 40
References 41
3 Applications and Prospects of Nanopharmaceuticals Delivery 45
Hemant K. S. Yadav, Fejer Al mohammedawi and Rawan J. I. Abujarad
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Nanopharmaceuticals 46
3.3 Development of Nanopharmaceuticals 46
3.3.1 From Lab to the Marketplace 46
3.3.2 Techniques 47
3.3.3 Cost 47
3.3.4 Ethics 48
3.3.5 Nanopharmaceuticals Approval Regulations (FDA Rules & Regulations) 48
3.4 Clinical Applications of Nanotechnology 49
3.4.1 Diagnostic Applications 49
3.4.1.1 Detection 50
3.4.1.2 Protein Chips 50
3.4.1.3 Individual Target Probes 50
3.4.1.4 Nanotechnology as a Tool in Imaging 51
3.4.1.5 Sparse Cell Detection 51
3.4.2 Therapeutic Applications 51
3.4.2.1 Surfaces 51
3.4.2.2 Gene Delivery 51
3.4.2.3 Drug Delivery 52
3.4.2.4 Liposomes 52
3.4.2.5 Nanotechnology in Orthopedic Applications 52
3.4.2.6 Nanotechnology in Cardiac Therapy 53
3.4.2.7 Nanotechnology in Dental Care 53
3.4.2.8 Biomolecular Engineering 53
3.4.2.9 Biopharmaceuticals 53
3.5 Nanopharmaceuticals Delivery--Recent Applications 54
3.5.1 Nanoparticulate Systems for Vaccine 54
3.5.1.1 Polyanhydride-Based NPs 54
3.5.1.2 Biodegradable Synthetic PLGA NPs 54
3.5.1.3 Liposome-Based NPs 55
3.5.1.4 Polysaccharide-Based NPs 55
3.5.2 Chemotherapy 55
3.5.2.1 Increasing the Concentration of Chemotherapeutic Agents in Tumor Tissue 56
3.5.3 Drug/Gene Delivery 57
3.5.3.1 Nanoparticles Used in Drug Delivery System 58
3.5.3.2 Cellulose 59
3.6 Nanotechnology in Neurodegenerative Disorders Treatment 59
3.7 Future Perspective 59
3.8 Issues with Current Nanopharmaceutical Concepts 60
3.8.1 Large-Scale Manufacturing 60
3.8.2 Biological Challenges 62
3.8.3 Intellectual Property (IP) 62
3.8.4 Biocompatibility and Safety 63
3.8.5 Government Regulations 63
3.9 Conclusion 64
References 64
4 Nanomedicine Regulation and Future Prospects 67
md Anwar Nawaz R., Darul Raiyaan G. I., Sivakumar K. and Kantha D. Arunachalam
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Importance of Regulation of Nanomedicine 68
4.3 Regulatory Challenges Faced by Nanomaterial in Medicine 68
4.3.1 Performing Various Functions 69
4.3.2 Nanomedicine Classification Issues 69
4.3.3 Variation in Size of the Particle 69
4.3.4 Manufacturing Process 69
4.3.5 Difficulties to Create CQA 70
4.3.6 Nanotoxicology and Cellular Response 70
4.3.7 Administering Right Doses 71
4.3.8 Pharmacokinetics 71
4.3.9 Developing Guidelines 71
4.4 Nanomedicine Future Aspects 71
4.5 Challenges that Threaten the Future of Nanomedicine 72
4.5.1 Financial Crisis 72
4.5.2 Lack of Confidence 72
4.5.3 Potential Dangers 72
4.5.4 Unsuccessful Patenting 73
4.5.5 Breakdowns in the Pharmaceuticals and Financial Markets 73
4.5.6 Limited Regulation 74
4.6 Future Prospects for Nanomedicine 74
4.6.1 Emerging Nanomaterials 75
4.6.2 Personalized Nanomedicine 75
4.6.3 Nanorobots and Nanodevices 75
4.6.4 Orthopedic Augmentations and Cytocompatibility 76
4.6.5 Cardiology and Nanotechnology 76
4.6.6 Cancer and Nanotechnology 77
4.6.7 Napt 77
4.6.8 Gene, Protein, Lab-on-a-Chip Devices 78
4.6.9 Polymeric Nanoparticles in Medicine 78
References 79
5 Nanotechnology Application in Drug Delivery for Medicinal Plants 81
Bui Thanh Tung, Duong Van Thanh and Nguyen Phuong Thanh
5.1 Introduction 81
5.1.1 Nanodrug Delivery Systems (NDDS) 81
5.2 Nanoherbals 83
5.2.1 Cucuma longa (Cucurmin) 83
5.2.2 Gingko biloba 84
5.2.3 Artemisia 85
5.2.4 Silybum marianum--Silymarin 85
5.2.5 Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen) 88
5.2.6 Glycyrrhiza glabra (L.) 88
5.2.7 Camellia sinensis (Green tea) 88
5.2.8 Camptotheca acuminata 91
5.2.9 Leea indica 91
5.2.10 Ziziphus mauritiana (Malay apple) 91
5.2.11 Cuscuta chinensis 91
5.3 Conclusion 92
References 92
6 Nanosystems Trends in Nutraceutical Delivery 97
Aristote Buya
6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Classification of Nutraceuticals 98
6.3 Biopharmaceutical Issues Associated with Nutraceuticals 101
6.4 Nanosystems for Delivery of Nutraceuticals 101
6.4.1 Nanoemulsions 101
6.4.2 Self-Emulsifying Systems 105
6.4.3 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers 105
6.4.4 Liposomes 106
6.4.5 Polymeric Nanoparticles 107
6.4.6 Inorganic Nanoparticles 107
6.5 Challenges 108
6.6 Market Potential 110
6.7 Conclusion and Perspective 111
References 111
7 Nanoencapsulated Systems for Delivery of Phytopharmaceuticals 127
Jacqueline Renovato-Núñez, Luis Enrique Cobos-Puc, Ezequiel Viveros-Valdez, Anna Iliná, Elda Patricia Segura-Ceniceros, Raúl Rodríguez-Herrera and Sonia Yesenia Silva-Belmares
7.1 Introduction 127
7.1.1 Nanoencapsulation Techniques in Phytopharmaceuticals 128
7.1.1.1 Physical-Chemical Techniques 129
7.1.1.2 Chemicals Techniques 130
7.1.1.3 Mechanical Techniques 131
7.1.2 Characterization of Nanoencapsulates 132
7.1.2.1 Morphological Characterization 132
7.1.2.2 Physicochemical Characterization 134
7.1.3 Nanoencapsulated Systems for Free Delivery of Phytopharmaceuticals 137
7.1.4 Studies to Evaluate Phytopharmaceuticals Nanoencapsulates 141
7.2 Conclusions 144
References 145
8 Topical Drug Delivery Using Liposomes and Liquid Crystalline Phases for Skin Cancer Therapy 153
Karina Alexandre Barros Nogueira, Jéssica Roberta Pereira Martins, Thayane Soares Lima, Jose Willams Bandeira Alves Junior, Alanna Letícia do Carmo Aquino, Lorena Maria Ferreira de Lima, Josimar O. Eloy and Raquel Petrilli
8.1 Introduction 153
8.2 Liposomes for Topical Application 156
8.2.1 Development of Liposomal Nanoparticles 156
8.3 Liquid Crystals and Liquid Crystalline Nanodispersions for Topical Application 162
8.3.1 Characterization Techniques 164
8.4 Physical Methods Applied to Nanoparticles Delivery 165
8.4.1 Sonophoresis 167
8.4.2 Microneedles 168
8.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 169
Acknowledgements 169
References 169
9 Vesicular Drug Delivery in Arthritis Treatment 177
Nilesh Gorde, Sandeep O. Waghulde, Ajay Kharche and Mohan Kale
9.1 Introduction 177
9.2 Skin Penetration Pathways 178
9.2.1 Intercellular Pathway 179
9.2.2 Transcellular Pathway 179
9.2.3 Appendgeal Pathway 179
9.3 Principles of Drug Permeation Through Skin 180
9.4 Problems Associated with Conventional Dosage Forms 180
9.5 Novel Treatment Strategies for Arthritis 182
9.5.1 Traditional Liposomes as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 183
9.5.2 Transferosomes (Ultradeformable Liposomes) as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 183
9.5.3 Ethosomes as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 184
9.5.4 Niosomes as Skin Drug Delivery Systems 185
9.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 187
References 187
10 Perspectives of Novel Drug Delivery in Mycoses 197
D. Maheswary, Kakithakara Vajravelu Leela and Sujith Ravi
10.1 Introduction 197
10.2 Role of Conventional Drugs in Antifungal Therapy 198
10.3 Mechanism of Action of Conventional Antifungals 198
10.4 Summary of Nanoparticles and Their Role in Antifungal Therapy 199
10.4.1 Lipid Nanoparticles 199
10.4.2 Liposome 200
10.4.3 Transfersomes 200
10.4.4 Transethosomes 200
10.4.5 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN) 200
10.4.6 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) 200
10.4.7 Polymer Lipid Hybrid Nanoparticles (PLN) 200
10.4.8 Polymeric Nanoparticles 201
10.4.9 Microsponge and Nanosponge Systems 201
10.4.10 Polymeric Micelles 201
10.4.11 Polymersomes 201
10.4.12 Dendrimers 202
10.4.13 Metallic Nanoparticles 202
10.5 Other Drug Delivery Systems 202
10.5.1 Niosomes 202
10.5.2 Spanlastics 202
10.5.3 Microemulsions and Nanoemulsions 202
10.5.4 Silicon Dioxide Nanoparticles 203
10.6 Conclusion 203
References 203
11 Nano-Based Drug Delivery in Eliminating Tuberculosis 207
Anusha Gopinathan, Shweta Sagar Naik, Leela K.V. and Sujith Ravi
11.1 Introduction 208
11.1.1 Latent and Active Tuberculosis 208
11.1.2 Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) 209
11.1.3 Extensively Drug-Resistant TB 209
11.2 Antitubercular Therapy 209
11.3 Therapies Based on Nanotechnology 211
11.3.1 Nanoparticles for Anti-TB Therapy 211
11.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanoparticles 211
11.3.3 Types of Nanoparticles and Their Characteristics 212
11.3.3.1 TB Dendrimers 212
11.3.3.2 Cyclodextrins 213
11.3.3.3 Polymeric Micelles 213
11.3.3.4 Liposomes 213
11.3.3.5 Nanoemulsions 214
11.3.3.6 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 214
11.3.3.7 Niosomes 214
11.3.3.8 Polymeric Nanoparticles 214
11.4 Routes of Administration of Nanoparticles 215
11.4.1 Oral Administration of Nanoparticles 215
11.4.2 Inhalational Administration of Nanoparticles 215
11.4.3 Intravenous Administration of Nanoparticles 215
11.4.4 Other Routes of Administration 216
11.5 Conclusion 216
References 216
12 Promising Approaches in Drug Delivery Against Resistant Bacteria 219
Shweta Sagar Naik, Anusha G., KakithakaraVajravelu Leela and Sujith Ravi
12.1 Introduction 219
12.2 Drug Delivery Systems 220
12.2.1 Microneedles 220
12.2.2 Nanoparticles 221
12.2.2.1 Inorganic Nanoparticles 222
12.2.2.2 Polymer-Based Nanomedicines 222
12.2.3 Lipid-Based Nanoformulations 223
12.2.4 Stimuli-Responsive Nanocarriers 224
12.2.4.1 Endogenous Stimuli 224
12.2.4.2 Exogeneous Stimuli 225
12.2.5 Nanogels 226
12.2.6 Nanofibers 226
12.2.7 Biomedical Implants 226
12.2.8 Wound Dressing 227
12.3 Biofilm Disruption 227
12.4 Conclusion 227
References 228
13 Emulgels: A Novel Approach for Enhanced Topical Drug Delivery Systems 231
Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Shradhanjali Singh, Amit Kumar Singh, Anil Kumar Singh and Divya Rani Sharma
13.1 Introduction 231
13.2 Approaches Used for Topical Drug Delivery 232
13.3 Factors Affecting Topical Absorption of Drug 233
13.4 Drug Delivery Across the Skin 233
13.5 Emulgels 234
13.5.1 Types of Emulgels 234
13.5.2 Advantages of Emulgel 235
13.5.3 Rationale of Emulgel as a Topical Drug Delivery System 236
13.5.4 Formulation Considerations 237
13.5.5 Excipients Used in the Formulation of Emulgel 238
13.5.5.1 Vehicle 238
13.5.5.2 Emulsifying Agents 238
13.5.5.3 Gelling Agent 242
13.5.5.4 Penetration Enhancers 244
13.5.5.5 Preservatives 245
13.5.5.6 Antioxidants 245
13.5.5.7 Humectant 246
13.5.6 Formulation Methods 246
13.5.7 Routes of Administration for Emulgel Formulation 248
13.5.8 Evaluation of Emulgels 248
13.5.8.1 Physical Appearance 252
13.5.8.2 Spreading Coefficient 252
13.5.8.3 Rheological Studies 252
13.5.8.4 Globule Size and its Distribution in Emulgel 252
13.5.8.5 Swelling Index 252
13.5.8.6 Extrudability Study of Topical Emulgel (Tube Test) 253
13.5.8.7 Skin Irritation Test (Patch Test) 253
13.5.8.8 Drug Content Determination 253
13.5.8.9 In Vitro Release/Permeation Studies 253
13.5.8.10 Ex Vivo Bioadhesive Strength Measurement of Topical Emulgel (Mice Shaven Skin) 254
13.5.8.11 Microbiological Assay 254
13.5.8.12 Drug Release Kinetic Study 254
13.5.8.13 Stability Studies 255
13.5.9 Marketed Preparations 255
13.5.10 Future Prospective of Emulgel as Topical Drug Delivery 256
13.5.11 Therapeutic Profile of Emulgel 258
13.6 Conclusions 258
References 258
14 Electrospun Nanofibers in Drug Delivery 263
Sathish Kumar Karuppannan, Saravannan Mani, Jayandra Bushion, Mohammed Junaid Hussain Dowlath and Kantha Deivi Arunachalam
14.1 Introduction 263
14.2 Electrospinning Setup 264
14.3 Polymers Used to Produce Electrospun Nanofibers 264
14.4 Drug Release 265
14.5 Matrix Type NFs 266
14.5.1 Monolithic 266
14.5.2 Blended NFs 266
14.6 Core-Shell Nanofibers 266
14.6.1 Multimatrix Core-Shell NFs 267
14.6.2 Reservoir Type Core-Shell NFs 267
14.7 Electrospun Nanofiber for Drug Delivery Applications 267
14.7.1 Nucleic Acid Delivery Using NFs 267
14.7.2 Antibiotics Delivery Using NFs 268
14.7.3 Vaginal Drug Delivery Using NFs 269
14.7.4 Ocular Drug Delivery Using NFs 269
14.7.5 Other Drug Delivery Using NFs 270
14.8 Conclusion 271
References 272
Part II: Drug Carriers in Drug Delivery 279
15 Role of Nanotechnology-Based Materials in Drug Delivery 281
Manasa R. and Mahesh Shivananjappa
15.1 Introduction 281
15.2 Nano-Based Drug Delivery Systems 282
15.3 Types of Nanoparticles 282
15.3.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles (PNPs) 282
15.3.2 Dendrimers 284
15.3.3 Polymeric Micelles 286
15.3.4 Liposomes 288
15.3.5 Quantum Dots (QDs) 290
15.3.6 Nanocrystals 291
15.3.7 Gold Nanoparticles 291
15.3.8 Carbon Nanoparticles 294
15.3.8.1 CNTs 294
15.3.8.2 CNH 295
15.3.8.3 Fullerenes 295
15.3.9 Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPs) 296
15.4 Advantages of Nanoparticles 298
15.5 Toxicity of Nanoparticles 299
15.6 Conclusion 299
References 299
16 Nanomedicine Drug Delivery System 309
Akshada Atul Bakliwal, Swapnali Ashish Patil, Vijay Sharad Chudiwal, Swati Gokul Talele, Gokul Shravan Talele and Anil Govindrao Jadhav
16.1 Introduction 309
16.2 Background 312
16.3 Five Overlapping Subthemes of Nanomedicine 312
16.4 How Nanomedicine Work? 313
16.5 Nanomedicine for Screening of Individuals with Serious Diseases 313
16.6 Objectives of Nanomedicine 313
16.7 Advantages of Nanomedicine 314
16.8 Physiological Principles for Nanomedicines 315
16.9 Nanotoxicology from Nanomedicines 315
16.9.1 Health and Safety Issues 316
16.9.2 Cell Death and Altered Gene Expression 316
16.9.3 Cell Death and Gene Therapy 316
16.9.4 Pseudoallergy and Idiosyncratic Reactions 317
16.9.5 Cytotoxicity 318
16.9.6 Implications for Nanotoxicology from Nonmedical Nanoparticles 318
16.10 Nanomedicine Applications 318
16.10.1 Analytical and Diagnostic Tools 318
16.10.1.1 In Vitro Diagnostic Devices 319
16.10.1.2 In Vivo Imaging 320
16.10.2 Drug Delivery 320
16.10.2.1 Micelles 321
16.10.2.2 Nanoemulsions 321
16.10.2.3 Solid Nanoparticles 321
16.10.3 Regenerative Medicine 321
16.11 Toxicological and Ethical Issues in Nanomedicine 322
16.11.1 Toxicity Issues 322
16.11.2 Ethical Issues 323
16.12 Conclusions 323
References 324
17 Nanocarriers-Based Topical Formulations for Acne Treatment 327
Júlia Scherer Santos
17.1 Introduction 327
17.2 Acne Therapeutics 328
17.2.1 Nanocarriers Toward Topical Acne Therapy 329
17.3 Efficacy and Safety of Nanotechnology-Based Acne Therapeutics 330
17.3.1 Ex Vivo and In Vitro Assays 331
17.3.2 Animal Assays 332
17.3.3 Clinical Assays 332
17.4 Improvement of Acne Therapy by Nanocarrier-Based Formulations 332
17.4.1 Conventional Drugs in Nanocarriers 334
17.4.2 Alternatives Drugs in Nanocarriers 335
17.5 Conclusion 336
References 336
18 Emerging Trends of Ocular Drug Delivery 341
Sora Yasri and Viroj Wiwanitkit
18.1 Introduction 341
18.2 Barriers to Ocular Drug Delivery 342
18.3 Classical Drug Delivery Technology 342
18.3.1 Anterior Segment 343
18.3.2 Posterior Segment 343
18.4 Novel Interventions for Ocular Drug Delivery 343
18.4.1 Ocular Implants 343
18.4.2 Punctum Plugs 344
18.4.3 Drug-Eluting Contact Lenses 344
18.4.4 Ocular Iontophoresis 345
18.4.5 Intravitreal Implants 345
18.4.6 Ocular Vaccination 346
18.5 Applied Nanotechnology for Ocular Drug Delivery 346
18.5.1 Nanomicelle 346
18.5.2 Liposomes 347
18.5.3 Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles 347
18.5.4 Niosomes 347
18.5.5 Nanospheres 347
18.5.6 Nanocapsules 347
18.5.7 Dendrimers 348
18.5.8 Nanowafers 348
18.5.9 Micronanosurgery for Ocular Drug Delivery 348
18.6 Conclusion 348
References 349
19 Microspheres: An Overview on Recent Advances in Novel Drug Delivery System 355
Sarang Kumar Jain, Swati Saxena and Raj K. Keservani
19.1 Introduction 355
19.2 Advantages of Novel Drug Delivery System 356
19.3 Classification of Novel Drug Delivery System 356
19.3.1 Microspheres 356
19.3.1.1 Types of Microspheres 356
19.3.2 Ideal Properties of Microparticulate Carriers 357
19.3.3 Polymers Used in Preparation of Microspheres 358
19.3.4 Advantages of Microspheres 359
19.3.5 Disadvantages of Microspheres 359
19.3.6 Classification of Microspheres 359
19.3.6.1 Bioadhesive Microspheres 359
19.3.6.2 Magnetic Microspheres 359
19.3.6.3 Floating Microspheres 360
19.3.6.4 Radioactive Microspheres 360
19.3.6.5 Polymeric Microspheres 360
19.3.7 Method of Preparation of Microspheres 360
19.3.7.1 Single Emulsion Technique 361
19.3.7.2 Double Emulsion Method 361
19.3.7.3 Polymerization Technique 362
19.3.7.4 Phase Separation Coacervation Technique 362
19.3.7.5 Spray Drying and Spray Congealing Method 363
19.3.7.6 Solvent Evaporation Method 363
19.3.8 Evaluation Parameters of Microspheres 364
19.3.8.1 Particle Size and Shape 364
19.3.8.2 Chemical Analysis by Electron Spectroscopy 364
19.3.8.3 FTIR Spectroscopy 364
19.3.8.4 Determination of Density 364
19.3.8.5 Isoelectric Point Determination 364
19.3.8.6 Entrapment Efficiency 364
19.3.8.7 Angle of Contact 364
19.3.8.8 Swelling Index 365
19.3.8.9 Production Yield 365
19.3.8.10 In Vitro Drug Release Study 365
19.3.8.11 Drug Release Kinetics 365
19.3.8.12 Stability Studies 365
19.3.9 Applications of Microspheres 365
References 366
20 Drug Delivery Systems and Oral Biofilm 367
Elda Patricia Segura Ceniceros, Luis Méndez González, Reginaldo Tijerina, Eduardo Osorio Ramos, Francisco Javier Mendoza González, Verónica Leticia Rodríguez Contreras, Alejandra Isabel Vargas Segura and Luis Antonio Vázquez Olvera
20.1 Introduction 368
20.2 Oral Biofilm 369
20.2.1 Biofilm Related Infections in The Oral Cavity 371
20.2.1.1 Oral Biofilm and Periodontal Disease 371
20.2.1.2 Oral Biofilm and Endodontic Infections 373
20.2.1.3 Oral Biofilm and Dental Caries 373
20.3 Drug Delivery Systems 374
20.3.1 Nanoparticles 375
20.3.2 Hydrogels 375
20.3.3 Dendrimers 376
20.4 Applications of Drug Delivery Systems for Treatment of Oral Biofilm Infection 376
20.4.1 DDS and Dental Caries 377
20.4.2 DDS and Periodontal Disease 378
20.4.3 DDS and Other Oral Pathologies 378
20.5 Conclusion 379
References 379
21 Oral Drug Delivery System: An Overview on Recent Advances in Novel Drug Delivery System 383
Sarang Kumar Jain, Ankita Sahu and Raj K. Keservani
21.1 Introduction 383
21.1.1 Oral Route 383
21.1.2 Oral Health 385
21.1.3 Oral Hygiene 386
21.2 Oral Drug Administration Sites 387
21.2.1 Oral Mucosal Drug Delivery System 387
21.2.1.1 Physiology of Oral Mucosa 388
21.2.1.2 Importance of Saliva and Mucin 388
21.2.2 Buccal and Sublingual Drug Absorption 389
21.3 Factors Affecting Drug Absorption 389
21.3.1 Lipid Solubility, pH, and Degree of Ionization 390
21.3.2 Molecule Weight and Size of Drug 390
21.3.3 Formulation Physiochemical Properties Related Factors 390
21.3.4 Permeability Enhancer 390
21.4 Drug Delivery for Periodontitis 391
21.4.1 Periodontal Pocket 391
21.4.1.1 Classification of Periodontal Pockets According to their Morphology 391
21.4.1.2 Classification of Periodontal Pocket According to the Involvement of Tooth Surfaces 392
21.5 Oral Periodontitis Drug Delivery System 393
21.5.1 Antibacterial DDS for Periodontitis 393
21.5.2 Remineralizing DDS 393
21.5.3 Inflammation Modulating and Alveolar Bone Repairing DDS for Periodontitis 394
21.5.3.1 DDS for Peri-Implantitis 394
21.6 Teeth Treatments 394
21.7 Periodontal Local Drug Delivery 395
21.8 Carriers of Oral and Periodontitis Drug Delivery System 395
21.8.1 Hydrogel 396
21.8.2 Dendrimers 396
21.8.3 Chewing Gum 396
21.8.4 Lozenges 397
21.8.5 Tablets 397
21.9 Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery System/Buccal Adhesive Drug Delivery System 397
21.9.1 Patches and Films 398
21.9.2 Oral Suspension 398
21.9.3 Spray 398
21.9.4 Liposome 398
21.9.5 Nanoparticles 399
21.9.6 Laminated Film 399
21.9.7 Injectable Gels 399
21.9.8 Fibers 399
21.9.9 Strips and Compacts 399
References 400
22 Cancer Nanotheranostics: A Review 401
Ozge Esim and Canan Hascikek
22.1 Introduction 401
22.1.1 Lipid and Polymer-Based Nanosystems 403
22.1.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles 413
22.1.3 Quantum Dots (QD) 418
22.1.4 Other Metal-Derived Nanoparticles 421
22.2 Conclusion 425
References 425
23 Nanomedicine in Lung Cancer Therapy 433
Jagdale Swati C., HableAsawaree A. and ChabukswarAnuruddha R.
23.1 Introduction 433
23.2 Nanotechnology 434
23.3 Nanomedicines for Lung Cancer Therapy 435
23.3.1 Nanoparticles 436
23.3.1.1 Gold and Silver Nanoparticles 436
23.3.1.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 437
23.3.1.3 Inhalable Nanoparticles 437
23.3.2 Micelles 437
23.3.3 Dendrimers 439
23.3.4 Liposome 439
23.3.5 Carbon Nanotubes 440
23.3.6 Quantum Dots 441
23.3.7 Nanofibers 442
23.3.8 Nanoshells 442
23.4 Evaluation of Nanoformulations 442
23.5 Application of Nanoformulations 443
23.6 Marketed Therapies 444
23.7 Challenges 445
23.8 Potential 445
23.9 Future Scope 446
23.10 Conclusion 446
References 446
24 Delivering Herbal Drugs Using Nanotechnology 449
Manasa R. and Mahesh Shivananjappa
24.1 Introduction 449
24.2 Methods of Preparation of Nanoparticles 450
24.3 Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) for Herbal Drugs 451
24.3.1 Liposomes 451
24.3.2 Phytosomes 454
24.3.3 Transferosome 457
24.3.4 Niosomes 458
24.3.5 Ethosomes 459
24.3.6 Dendrimers 459
24.3.7 Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System (SNEDDS) 462
24.3.8 Self-Micro Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SMEDDS) 463
24.4 Conclusion 464
References 464
25 Nanoherbals Drug Delivery System for Treatment of Chronic Asthma 473
Harsh Yadav, Satish Dubey, Naureen Shaba Khan and Ashwini Kumar Dixit
25.1 Introduction 474
25.2 Mechanism of Asthma Physiopathology 474
25.3 Asthma Etiology 475
25.4 Severity of Asthma 475
25.5 Asthma Phenotypes 475
25.6 Asthma Epidemiology 476
25.7 Asthma Treatment 476
25.7.1 Adverse Effects of Current Treatment Techniques 477
25.8 Need of Natural Products as Alternative 477
25.9 Selected Medicinal Plants in Asthma Treatment 478
25.9.1 Piper betel Linn 478
25.9.2 Bacopa monnieri L. 479
25.9.3 Momordica charantia 479
25.9.4 Ficus bengalensis (Linn.) 479
25.9.5 Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon 479
25.10 Potentials of Nanotechnology in Asthma Drug Delivery 479
25.11 Nanoherbals as Asthma Drug Delivery System 482
25.12 Future Prospectus of Nanoherbal Drug Delivery 483
25.13 Conclusion 484
References 484
26 Nutrients Delivery for Management and Prevention of Diseases 491
Darul Raiyaan G. I., Sameera Khathoon A. and Kantha D. Arunachalam
26.1 Introduction 491
26.2 Nutrients in Management and Prevention of Disease 492
26.2.1 Herbal Nutrients 492
26.2.2 FDA Regulations on Herbal Drugs 493
26.3 Phenolic Nutraceuticals 493
26.3.1 Polyphenols and Neurodegeneration 494
26.3.2 Polyphenols and Brain Tumors 494
26.3.3 Phenols and Other Cancer Treatments 494
26.3.4 Phenols and Hepatotoxicity 495
26.3.5 Clinical Trials 496
26.3.6 Curcumin 496
26.4 Routes for Nutrients Delivery 497
26.4.1 Oral Route 497
26.4.2 Intranasal Delivery 497
26.4.3 Transdermal Route 497
26.5 Nanoparticle-Based Nutrients Delivery System 498
26.5.1 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) 498
26.5.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) 499
26.5.3 Liposomes 499
26.5.4 Nanocrystals 499
26.5.5 alpha-Lactalbumin 500
26.5.6 Carbon Nanotubes 500
26.5.7 Nanocochleates 500
26.5.8 Nanosized Self-Assembled Liquid Structures 500
26.5.9 Polysaccharide-Based Nanoscale Delivery of Nutrients 500
26.5.10 Chitosan 501
26.5.11 Alginate 501
26.5.12 Pectin 502
26.5.13 Gum Arabic 502
26.5.14 Cashew Gum 503
26.6 Protein-Based Nanoscale Delivery of Nutrients 503
26.6.1 Zein 503
26.6.2 Gliadin 503
26.6.3 Soy Protein Isolates (SPI) 504
26.6.4 Whey Protein 504
26.6.5 Casein 505
26.6.6 Other Proteins 505
26.7 Micelles 505
26.8 Advantages of Nanomaterials in Nutraceuticals 507
26.9 Safety and Toxicity of Nanostructures Applied in Food Systems 509
26.10 Conclusion 509
References 509
27 Nanonutraceuticals for Drug Delivery 521
Charu Gupta and Dhan Prakash
27.1 Introduction 521
27.2 Approaches to Enhance Oral Bioavailability of Nutraceuticals 522
27.2.1 Protection of Labile Compounds 523
27.2.2 Extension of Gastric Retention Time 523
27.2.3 Intonation of Metabolic Activities 523
27.3 Carriers for Nutraceutical Delivery 523
27.3.1 Nanoparticles for Nutraceuticals Delivery 524
27.3.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) for Nutraceutical Delivery 524
27.3.3 Niosomes 525
27.3.4 Nanospheres 525
27.3.5 Nanoliposomes 525
27.3.6 Nanofibers 526
27.3.7 Nanoemulsion 526
27.4 Nanotechnology in Food Sector 527
27.4.1 Nanotechnology in Nutraceuticals 527
27.4.2 Nanotechnology in Medications 528
27.4.3 Commercial Nanonutraceuticals 533
27.4.4 Nanosized Self-Assembled Structured Liquids 534
27.5 Delivery of Nutraceuticals 536
27.5.1 In-Feed or Oral Nanodelivery 536
27.5.2 Dermal Delivery 537
27.5.3 Ophthalmic Delivery 537
27.6 Constraints in Nanodrug Delivery Systems 537
27.7 Conclusion 537
Acknowledgments 538
References 538
Index 541
Raj K. Keservani, MPharm, is an associate professor in the Faculty of B. Pharmacy, CSM Group of Institutions, Prayagraj, India. He has more than 12 years of academic (teaching) experience from various institutes in India in pharmaceutical education. He has published more than 30 peer-reviewed papers in the field of pharmaceutical sciences in national and international journals, 1 patent, 43 book chapters, three co-authored books, and 19 edited books. His research interests include nutraceutical and functional foods, novel drug delivery systems (NDDS), transdermal drug delivery/drug delivery, health science, cancer biology, and neurobiology.
Rajesh Kumar Kesharwani, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Computer Application, Nehru Gram Bharati (Deemed to be University), Prayagraj, India. He has more than 11 years of research and 9 years of teaching experience in various institutes in India. He has authored more than 55 peer-reviewed articles, 24 book chapters, and 15 edited books. His research fields of interest are medical informatics, protein structure and function prediction, computer-aided drug designing, structural biology, drug delivery, cancer biology, nano-biotechnology, and biomedical sciences.
Anil K. Sharma, M.Pharm., PhD, is an assistant professor (Pharmaceutics) at the School of Medical and Allied Sciences, GD Goenka University, Gurugram, India. He has experience of more than 13 years in academics. He has published 30 peer-reviewed papers in the field of pharmaceutical sciences in nationally and internationally reputed journals as well as 16 book chapters and 15 edited books. His research interests encompass nutraceutical and functional foods, novel drug delivery systems (NDDS), drug delivery, nanotechnology, health science/life science, and biology/cancer biology/neurobiology.
Rajesh Kumar Kesharwani, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Computer Application, Nehru Gram Bharati (Deemed to be University), Prayagraj, India. He has more than 11 years of research and 9 years of teaching experience in various institutes in India. He has authored more than 55 peer-reviewed articles, 24 book chapters, and 15 edited books. His research fields of interest are medical informatics, protein structure and function prediction, computer-aided drug designing, structural biology, drug delivery, cancer biology, nano-biotechnology, and biomedical sciences.
Anil K. Sharma, M.Pharm., PhD, is an assistant professor (Pharmaceutics) at the School of Medical and Allied Sciences, GD Goenka University, Gurugram, India. He has experience of more than 13 years in academics. He has published 30 peer-reviewed papers in the field of pharmaceutical sciences in nationally and internationally reputed journals as well as 16 book chapters and 15 edited books. His research interests encompass nutraceutical and functional foods, novel drug delivery systems (NDDS), drug delivery, nanotechnology, health science/life science, and biology/cancer biology/neurobiology.
