Geochronology and Thermochronology
Wiley Works
1. Edition March 2018
480 Pages, Hardcover
Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBN:
978-1-118-45585-2
John Wiley & Sons
Further versions
This book is a welcome introduction and reference for users and innovators in geochronology. It provides modern perspectives on the current state-of-the art in most of the principal areas of geochronology and thermochronology, while recognizing that they are changing at a fast pace. It emphasizes fundamentals and systematics, historical perspective, analytical methods, data interpretation, and some applications chosen from the literature. This book complements existing coverage by expanding on those parts of isotope geochemistry that are concerned with dates and rates and insights into Earth and planetary science that come from temporal perspectives.
Geochronology and Thermochronology offers chapters covering: Foundations of Radioisotopic Dating; Analytical Methods; Interpretational Approaches: Making Sense of Data; Diffusion and Thermochronologic Interpretations; Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, Lu-Hf; Re-Os and Pt-Os; U-Th-Pb Geochronology and Thermochronology; The K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar Systems; Radiation-damage Methods of Geo- and Thermochronology; The (U-Th)/He System; Uranium-series Geochronology; Cosmogenic Nuclides; and Extinct Radionuclide Chronology.
* Offers a foundation for understanding each of the methods and for illuminating directions that will be important in the near future
* Presents the fundamentals, perspectives, and opportunities in modern geochronology in a way that inspires further innovation, creative technique development, and applications
* Provides references to rapidly evolving topics that will enable readers to pursue future developments
Geochronology and Thermochronology is designed for graduate and upper-level undergraduate students with a solid background in mathematics, geochemistry, and geology.
Read an interview with the editors to find out more:
https://eos.org/editors-vox/the-science-of-dates-and-rates
Preface, ix
1 Introduction, 1
1.1 Geo and chronologies, 1
1.2 The ages of the age of the earth, 2
1.3 Radioactivity, 7
1.4 The objectives and significance of geochronology, 13
1.5 References, 15
2 Foundations of radioisotopic dating, 17
2.1 Introduction, 17
2.2 The delineation of nuclear structure, 17
2.3 Nuclear stability, 19
2.3.1 Nuclear binding energy and the mass defect, 19
2.3.2 The liquid drop model for the nucleus, 20
2.3.3 The nuclear shell model, 22
2.3.4 Chart of the nuclides, 23
2.4 Radioactive decay, 23
2.4.1 Fission, 23
2.4.2 Alpha-decay, 24
2.4.3 Beta-decay, 25
2.4.4 Electron capture, 25
2.4.5 Branching decay, 25
2.4.6 The energy of decay, 25
2.4.7 The equations of radioactive decay, 27
2.5 Nucleosynthesis and element abundances in the solar system, 30
2.5.1 Stellar nucleosynthesis, 30
2.5.2 Making elements heavier than iron: s-, r-, p-process nucleosynthesis, 31
2.5.3 Element abundances in the solar system, 32
2.6 Origin of radioactive isotopes, 33
2.6.1 Stellar contributions of naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, 33
2.6.2 Decay chains, 33
2.6.3 Cosmogenic nuclides, 33
2.6.4 Nucleogenic isotopes, 35
2.6.5 Man-made radioactive isotopes, 36
2.7 Conclusions, 36
2.8 References, 36
3 Analytical methods, 39
3.1 Introduction, 39
3.2 Sample preparation, 39
3.3 Extraction of the element to be analyzed, 40
3.4 Isotope dilution elemental quantification, 42
3.5 Ion exchange chromatography, 43
3.6 Mass spectrometry, 44
3.6.1 Ionization, 46
3.6.2 Extraction and focusing of ions, 49
3.6.3 Mass fractionation, 50
3.6.4 Mass analyzer, 52
3.6.5 Detectors, 57
3.6.6 Vacuum systems, 60
3.7 Conclusions, 62
3.8 References, 63
4 Interpretational approaches: making sense of data, 65
4.1 Introduction, 65
4.2 Terminology and basics, 65
4.2.1 Accuracy, precision, and trueness, 65
4.2.2 Random versus systematic, uncertainties versus errors, 66
4.2.3 Probability density functions, 67
4.2.4 Univariate (one-variable) distributions, 68
4.2.5 Multivariate normal distributions, 68
4.3 Estimating a mean and its uncertainty, 69
4.3.1 Average values: the sample mean, sample variance, and sample standard deviation, 70
4.3.2 Average values: the standard error of the mean, 70
4.3.3 Application: accurate standard errors for mass spectrometry, 71
4.3.4 Correlation, covariance, and the covariance matrix, 73
4.3.5 Degrees of freedom, part 1: the variance, 73
4.3.6 Degrees of freedom, part 2: Student's t distribution, 73
4.3.7 The weighted mean, 75
4.4 Regressing a line, 76
4.4.1 Ordinary least-squares linear regression, 76
4.4.2 Weighted least-squares regression, 77
4.4.3 Linear regression with uncertainties in two or more variables (York regression), 77
4.5 Interpreting measured data using the mean square weighted deviation, 79
4.5.1 Testing a weighted mean's assumptions using its MSWD, 79
4.5.2 Testing a linear regression's assumptions using its MSWD, 80
4.5.3 My data set has a high MSWD--what now?, 81
4.5.4 My data set has a really low MSWD--what now?, 81
4.6 Conclusions, 82
4.7 Bibliography and suggested readings, 82
5 Diffusion and thermochronologic interpretations, 83
5.1 Fundamentals of heat and chemical diffusion, 83
5.1.1 Thermochronologic context, 83
5.1.2 Heat and chemical diffusion equation, 83
5.1.3 Temperature dependence of diffusion, 85
5.1.4 Some analytical solutions, 86
5.1.5 Anisotropic diffusion, 86
5.1.6 Initial infinite concentration (spike), 86
5.1.7 Characteristic length and time scales, 86
5.1.8 Semi-infinite media, 87
5.1.9 Plane sheet, cylinder, and sphere, 88
5.2 Fractional loss, 88
5.3 Analytical methods for measuring diffusion, 89
5.3.1 Step-heating fractional loss experiments, 89
5.3.2 Multidomain diffusion, 92
5.3.3 Profile characterization, 93
5.4 Interpreting thermal histories from thermochronologic data, 94
5.4.1 "End-members" of thermochronometric date interpretations, 94
5.4.2 Equilibrium dates, 95
5.4.3 Partial retention zone, 95
5.4.4 Resetting dates, 96
5.4.5 Closure, 97
5.5 From thermal to geologic histories in low-temperature thermochronology: diffusion and advection of heat in the earth's crust, 105
5.5.1 Simple solutions for one- and two-dimensional crustal thermal fields, 107
5.5.2 Erosional exhumation, 108
5.5.3 Interpreting spatial patterns of erosion rates, 109
5.5.4 Interpreting temporal patterns of erosion rates, 113
5.5.5 Interpreting paleotopography, 113
5.6 Detrital thermochronology approaches for understanding landscape evolution and tectonics, 116
5.7 Conclusions, 121
5.8 References, 123
6 Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, and Lu-Hf, 127
6.1 Introduction, 127
6.2 History, 127
6.3 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 128
6.3.1 Decay modes and isotopic abundances, 128
6.3.2 Decay constants, 128
6.3.3 Data representation, 129
6.3.4 Geochemistry, 131
6.4 Isochron systematics, 133
6.4.1 Distinguishing mixing lines from isochrons, 136
6.5 Diverse chronological applications, 137
6.5.1 Dating diagenetic minerals in clay-rich sediments, 137
6.5.2 Direct dating of ore minerals, 138
6.5.3 Dating of mineral growth in magma chambers, 140
6.5.4 Garnet Sm-Nd and Lu-Hf dating, 141
6.6 Model ages, 143
6.6.1 Model ages for volatile depletion, 144
6.6.2 Model ages for multistage source evolution, 146
6.7 Conclusion and future directions, 148
6.8 References, 148
7 Re-Os and Pt-Os, 151
7.1 Introduction, 151
7.2 Radioactive systematics and basic equations, 151
7.3 Geochemical properties and abundance in natural materials, 154
7.4 Analytical challenges, 154
7.5 Geochronologic applications, 156
7.5.1 Meteorites, 156
7.5.2 Molybdenite, 158
7.5.3 Other sulfides, ores, and diamonds, 159
7.5.4 Organic-rich sediments, 161
7.5.5 Komatiites, 161
7.5.6 Basalts, 163
7.5.7 Dating melt extraction from the mantle--Re-Os model ages, 164
7.6 Conclusions, 167
7.7 References, 167
8 U-Th-Pb geochronology and thermochronology, 171
8.1 Introduction and background, 171
8.1.1 Decay of U and Th to Pb, 171
8.1.2 Dating equations, 173
8.1.3 Decay constants, 173
8.1.4 Isotopic composition of U, 174
8.2 Chemistry of U, Th, and Pb, 176
8.3 Data visualization, isochrons, and concordia plots, 176
8.3.1 Isochron diagrams, 176
8.3.2 Concordia diagrams, 177
8.4 Causes of discordance in the U-Th-Pb system, 178
8.4.1 Mixing of different age domains, 180
8.4.2 Pb loss, 180
8.4.3 Intermediate daughter product disequilibrium, 182
8.4.4 Correction for initial Pb, 183
8.5 Analytical approaches to U-Th-Pb geochronology, 184
8.5.1 Thermal ionization mass spectrometry, 185
8.5.2 Secondary ion mass spectrometry, 187
8.5.3 Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, 188
8.5.4 Elemental U-Th-Pb geochronology by EMP, 188
8.6 Applications and approaches, 188
8.6.1 The age of meteorites and of Earth, 188
8.6.2 The Hadean, 192
8.6.3 P-T-t paths of metamorphic belts, 194
8.6.4 Rates of crustal magmatism from U-Pb
geochronology, 197
8.6.5 U-Pb geochronology and the stratigraphic record, 200
8.6.6 Detrital zircon geochronology, 202
8.6.7 U-Pb thermochronology, 204
8.6.8 Carbonate geochronology by the U-Pb method, 209
8.6.9 U-Pb geochronology of baddeleyite and paleogeographic reconstructions, 211
8.7 Concluding remarks, 212
8.8 References, 212
9 The K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar systems, 231
9.1 Introduction and fundamentals, 231
9.2 Historical perspective, 232
9.3 K-Ar dating, 233
9.3.1 Determining 40Ar*, 233
9.3.2 Determining 40K, 234
9.4 40Ar/39Ar dating, 234
9.4.1 Neutron activation, 234
9.4.2 Collateral effects of neutron irradiation, 237
9.4.3 Appropriate materials, 240
9.5 Experimental approaches and geochronologic applications, 242
9.5.1 Single crystal fusion, 242
9.5.2 Intragrain age gradients, 243
9.5.3 Incremental heating, 243
9.6 Calibration and accuracy, 248
9.6.1 40K decay constants, 248
9.6.2 Standards, 249
9.6.3 So which is the best calibration?, 250
9.6.4 Interlaboratory issues, 252
9.7 Concluding remarks, 252
9.7.1 Remaining challenges, 252
9.8 References, 253
10 Radiation-damage methods of geochronology and thermochronology, 259
10.1 Introduction, 259
10.2 Thermal and optically stimulated luminescence, 259
10.2.1 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 259
10.2.2 Analysis, 260
10.2.3 Fundamental assumptions and considerations for interpretations, 264
10.2.4 Applications, 265
10.3 Electron spin resonance, 266
10.3.1 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 266
10.3.2 Analysis, 267
10.3.3 Fundamental assumptions and considerations for interpretations, 268
10.3.4 Applications, 269
10.4 Alpha decay, alpha-particle haloes, and alpha-recoil tracks, 270
10.4.1 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 270
10.5 Fission tracks, 273
10.5.1 History, 273
10.5.2 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 273
10.5.3 Analyses, 274
10.5.4 Fission-track age equations, 276
10.5.5 Fission-track annealing, 278
10.5.6 Track-length analysis, 280
10.5.7 Applications, 281
10.6 Conclusions, 284
10.7 References, 285
11 The (U-Th)/He system, 291
11.1 Introduction, 291
11.2 History, 291
11.3 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 292
11.4 Analysis, 294
11.4.1 "Conventional" analyses, 294
11.4.2 Other analytical approaches, 306
11.4.3 Uncertainty and reproducibility in (U-Th)/He dating, 307
11.5 Helium diffusion, 310
11.5.1 Introduction, 310
11.5.2 Apatite, 311
11.5.3 Zircon, 322
11.5.4 Other minerals, 332
11.5.5 A compilation of He diffusion kinetics, 334
11.6 4He/3He thermochronometry, 342
11.6.1 Method requirements and assumptions, 346
11.7 Applications and case studies, 348
11.7.1 Tectonic exhumation of normal fault footwalls, 348
11.7.2 Paleotopography, 349
11.7.3 Orogen-scale trends in thermochronologic dates, 350
11.7.4 Detrital double-dating and sediment provenance, 353
11.7.5 Volcanic double-dating, precise eruption dates, and magmatic residence times, 353
11.7.6 Radiation-damage-and-annealing model applied to apatite, 355
11.8 Conclusions, 355
11.9 References, 356
12 Uranium-series geochronology, 365
12.1 Introduction, 365
12.2 Theory and fundamentals, 367
12.2.1 The mathematics of decay chains, 367
12.2.2 Mechanisms of producing disequilibrium, 369
12.3 Methods and analytical techniques, 369
12.3.1 Analytical techniques, 369
12.4 Applications, 372
12.4.1 U-series dating of carbonates, 372
12.4.2 U-series dating in silicate rocks, 378
12.5 Summary, 389
12.6 References, 390
13 Cosmogenic nuclides, 395
13.1 Introduction, 395
13.2 History, 395
13.3 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 396
13.3.1 Cosmic rays, 396
13.3.2 Distribution of cosmic rays on Earth, 396
13.3.3 What makes a cosmogenic nuclide detectable and useful?, 397
13.3.4 Types of cosmic-ray reactions, 398
13.3.5 Cosmic-ray attenuation, 399
13.3.6 Calibrating cosmogenic nuclide-production rates in rocks, 400
13.4 Applications, 401
13.4.1 Types of cosmogenic nuclide applications, 401
13.4.2 Extraterrestrial cosmogenic nuclides, 401
13.4.3 Meteoric cosmogenic nuclides, 402
13.5 Conclusion, 415
13.6 References, 416
14 Extinct radionuclide chronology, 421
14.1 Introduction, 421
14.2 History, 422
14.3 Systematics and applications, 423
14.3.1 26Al-26Mg, 423
14.3.2 53Mn-53Cr chronometry, 425
14.3.3 107Pd-107Ag, 428
14.3.4 182Hf-182W, 430
14.3.5 I-Pu-Xe, 433
14.3.6 146Sm-142Nd, 436
14.4 Conclusions, 441
14.5 References, 441
Index, 445
1 Introduction, 1
1.1 Geo and chronologies, 1
1.2 The ages of the age of the earth, 2
1.3 Radioactivity, 7
1.4 The objectives and significance of geochronology, 13
1.5 References, 15
2 Foundations of radioisotopic dating, 17
2.1 Introduction, 17
2.2 The delineation of nuclear structure, 17
2.3 Nuclear stability, 19
2.3.1 Nuclear binding energy and the mass defect, 19
2.3.2 The liquid drop model for the nucleus, 20
2.3.3 The nuclear shell model, 22
2.3.4 Chart of the nuclides, 23
2.4 Radioactive decay, 23
2.4.1 Fission, 23
2.4.2 Alpha-decay, 24
2.4.3 Beta-decay, 25
2.4.4 Electron capture, 25
2.4.5 Branching decay, 25
2.4.6 The energy of decay, 25
2.4.7 The equations of radioactive decay, 27
2.5 Nucleosynthesis and element abundances in the solar system, 30
2.5.1 Stellar nucleosynthesis, 30
2.5.2 Making elements heavier than iron: s-, r-, p-process nucleosynthesis, 31
2.5.3 Element abundances in the solar system, 32
2.6 Origin of radioactive isotopes, 33
2.6.1 Stellar contributions of naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, 33
2.6.2 Decay chains, 33
2.6.3 Cosmogenic nuclides, 33
2.6.4 Nucleogenic isotopes, 35
2.6.5 Man-made radioactive isotopes, 36
2.7 Conclusions, 36
2.8 References, 36
3 Analytical methods, 39
3.1 Introduction, 39
3.2 Sample preparation, 39
3.3 Extraction of the element to be analyzed, 40
3.4 Isotope dilution elemental quantification, 42
3.5 Ion exchange chromatography, 43
3.6 Mass spectrometry, 44
3.6.1 Ionization, 46
3.6.2 Extraction and focusing of ions, 49
3.6.3 Mass fractionation, 50
3.6.4 Mass analyzer, 52
3.6.5 Detectors, 57
3.6.6 Vacuum systems, 60
3.7 Conclusions, 62
3.8 References, 63
4 Interpretational approaches: making sense of data, 65
4.1 Introduction, 65
4.2 Terminology and basics, 65
4.2.1 Accuracy, precision, and trueness, 65
4.2.2 Random versus systematic, uncertainties versus errors, 66
4.2.3 Probability density functions, 67
4.2.4 Univariate (one-variable) distributions, 68
4.2.5 Multivariate normal distributions, 68
4.3 Estimating a mean and its uncertainty, 69
4.3.1 Average values: the sample mean, sample variance, and sample standard deviation, 70
4.3.2 Average values: the standard error of the mean, 70
4.3.3 Application: accurate standard errors for mass spectrometry, 71
4.3.4 Correlation, covariance, and the covariance matrix, 73
4.3.5 Degrees of freedom, part 1: the variance, 73
4.3.6 Degrees of freedom, part 2: Student's t distribution, 73
4.3.7 The weighted mean, 75
4.4 Regressing a line, 76
4.4.1 Ordinary least-squares linear regression, 76
4.4.2 Weighted least-squares regression, 77
4.4.3 Linear regression with uncertainties in two or more variables (York regression), 77
4.5 Interpreting measured data using the mean square weighted deviation, 79
4.5.1 Testing a weighted mean's assumptions using its MSWD, 79
4.5.2 Testing a linear regression's assumptions using its MSWD, 80
4.5.3 My data set has a high MSWD--what now?, 81
4.5.4 My data set has a really low MSWD--what now?, 81
4.6 Conclusions, 82
4.7 Bibliography and suggested readings, 82
5 Diffusion and thermochronologic interpretations, 83
5.1 Fundamentals of heat and chemical diffusion, 83
5.1.1 Thermochronologic context, 83
5.1.2 Heat and chemical diffusion equation, 83
5.1.3 Temperature dependence of diffusion, 85
5.1.4 Some analytical solutions, 86
5.1.5 Anisotropic diffusion, 86
5.1.6 Initial infinite concentration (spike), 86
5.1.7 Characteristic length and time scales, 86
5.1.8 Semi-infinite media, 87
5.1.9 Plane sheet, cylinder, and sphere, 88
5.2 Fractional loss, 88
5.3 Analytical methods for measuring diffusion, 89
5.3.1 Step-heating fractional loss experiments, 89
5.3.2 Multidomain diffusion, 92
5.3.3 Profile characterization, 93
5.4 Interpreting thermal histories from thermochronologic data, 94
5.4.1 "End-members" of thermochronometric date interpretations, 94
5.4.2 Equilibrium dates, 95
5.4.3 Partial retention zone, 95
5.4.4 Resetting dates, 96
5.4.5 Closure, 97
5.5 From thermal to geologic histories in low-temperature thermochronology: diffusion and advection of heat in the earth's crust, 105
5.5.1 Simple solutions for one- and two-dimensional crustal thermal fields, 107
5.5.2 Erosional exhumation, 108
5.5.3 Interpreting spatial patterns of erosion rates, 109
5.5.4 Interpreting temporal patterns of erosion rates, 113
5.5.5 Interpreting paleotopography, 113
5.6 Detrital thermochronology approaches for understanding landscape evolution and tectonics, 116
5.7 Conclusions, 121
5.8 References, 123
6 Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, and Lu-Hf, 127
6.1 Introduction, 127
6.2 History, 127
6.3 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 128
6.3.1 Decay modes and isotopic abundances, 128
6.3.2 Decay constants, 128
6.3.3 Data representation, 129
6.3.4 Geochemistry, 131
6.4 Isochron systematics, 133
6.4.1 Distinguishing mixing lines from isochrons, 136
6.5 Diverse chronological applications, 137
6.5.1 Dating diagenetic minerals in clay-rich sediments, 137
6.5.2 Direct dating of ore minerals, 138
6.5.3 Dating of mineral growth in magma chambers, 140
6.5.4 Garnet Sm-Nd and Lu-Hf dating, 141
6.6 Model ages, 143
6.6.1 Model ages for volatile depletion, 144
6.6.2 Model ages for multistage source evolution, 146
6.7 Conclusion and future directions, 148
6.8 References, 148
7 Re-Os and Pt-Os, 151
7.1 Introduction, 151
7.2 Radioactive systematics and basic equations, 151
7.3 Geochemical properties and abundance in natural materials, 154
7.4 Analytical challenges, 154
7.5 Geochronologic applications, 156
7.5.1 Meteorites, 156
7.5.2 Molybdenite, 158
7.5.3 Other sulfides, ores, and diamonds, 159
7.5.4 Organic-rich sediments, 161
7.5.5 Komatiites, 161
7.5.6 Basalts, 163
7.5.7 Dating melt extraction from the mantle--Re-Os model ages, 164
7.6 Conclusions, 167
7.7 References, 167
8 U-Th-Pb geochronology and thermochronology, 171
8.1 Introduction and background, 171
8.1.1 Decay of U and Th to Pb, 171
8.1.2 Dating equations, 173
8.1.3 Decay constants, 173
8.1.4 Isotopic composition of U, 174
8.2 Chemistry of U, Th, and Pb, 176
8.3 Data visualization, isochrons, and concordia plots, 176
8.3.1 Isochron diagrams, 176
8.3.2 Concordia diagrams, 177
8.4 Causes of discordance in the U-Th-Pb system, 178
8.4.1 Mixing of different age domains, 180
8.4.2 Pb loss, 180
8.4.3 Intermediate daughter product disequilibrium, 182
8.4.4 Correction for initial Pb, 183
8.5 Analytical approaches to U-Th-Pb geochronology, 184
8.5.1 Thermal ionization mass spectrometry, 185
8.5.2 Secondary ion mass spectrometry, 187
8.5.3 Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, 188
8.5.4 Elemental U-Th-Pb geochronology by EMP, 188
8.6 Applications and approaches, 188
8.6.1 The age of meteorites and of Earth, 188
8.6.2 The Hadean, 192
8.6.3 P-T-t paths of metamorphic belts, 194
8.6.4 Rates of crustal magmatism from U-Pb
geochronology, 197
8.6.5 U-Pb geochronology and the stratigraphic record, 200
8.6.6 Detrital zircon geochronology, 202
8.6.7 U-Pb thermochronology, 204
8.6.8 Carbonate geochronology by the U-Pb method, 209
8.6.9 U-Pb geochronology of baddeleyite and paleogeographic reconstructions, 211
8.7 Concluding remarks, 212
8.8 References, 212
9 The K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar systems, 231
9.1 Introduction and fundamentals, 231
9.2 Historical perspective, 232
9.3 K-Ar dating, 233
9.3.1 Determining 40Ar*, 233
9.3.2 Determining 40K, 234
9.4 40Ar/39Ar dating, 234
9.4.1 Neutron activation, 234
9.4.2 Collateral effects of neutron irradiation, 237
9.4.3 Appropriate materials, 240
9.5 Experimental approaches and geochronologic applications, 242
9.5.1 Single crystal fusion, 242
9.5.2 Intragrain age gradients, 243
9.5.3 Incremental heating, 243
9.6 Calibration and accuracy, 248
9.6.1 40K decay constants, 248
9.6.2 Standards, 249
9.6.3 So which is the best calibration?, 250
9.6.4 Interlaboratory issues, 252
9.7 Concluding remarks, 252
9.7.1 Remaining challenges, 252
9.8 References, 253
10 Radiation-damage methods of geochronology and thermochronology, 259
10.1 Introduction, 259
10.2 Thermal and optically stimulated luminescence, 259
10.2.1 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 259
10.2.2 Analysis, 260
10.2.3 Fundamental assumptions and considerations for interpretations, 264
10.2.4 Applications, 265
10.3 Electron spin resonance, 266
10.3.1 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 266
10.3.2 Analysis, 267
10.3.3 Fundamental assumptions and considerations for interpretations, 268
10.3.4 Applications, 269
10.4 Alpha decay, alpha-particle haloes, and alpha-recoil tracks, 270
10.4.1 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 270
10.5 Fission tracks, 273
10.5.1 History, 273
10.5.2 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 273
10.5.3 Analyses, 274
10.5.4 Fission-track age equations, 276
10.5.5 Fission-track annealing, 278
10.5.6 Track-length analysis, 280
10.5.7 Applications, 281
10.6 Conclusions, 284
10.7 References, 285
11 The (U-Th)/He system, 291
11.1 Introduction, 291
11.2 History, 291
11.3 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 292
11.4 Analysis, 294
11.4.1 "Conventional" analyses, 294
11.4.2 Other analytical approaches, 306
11.4.3 Uncertainty and reproducibility in (U-Th)/He dating, 307
11.5 Helium diffusion, 310
11.5.1 Introduction, 310
11.5.2 Apatite, 311
11.5.3 Zircon, 322
11.5.4 Other minerals, 332
11.5.5 A compilation of He diffusion kinetics, 334
11.6 4He/3He thermochronometry, 342
11.6.1 Method requirements and assumptions, 346
11.7 Applications and case studies, 348
11.7.1 Tectonic exhumation of normal fault footwalls, 348
11.7.2 Paleotopography, 349
11.7.3 Orogen-scale trends in thermochronologic dates, 350
11.7.4 Detrital double-dating and sediment provenance, 353
11.7.5 Volcanic double-dating, precise eruption dates, and magmatic residence times, 353
11.7.6 Radiation-damage-and-annealing model applied to apatite, 355
11.8 Conclusions, 355
11.9 References, 356
12 Uranium-series geochronology, 365
12.1 Introduction, 365
12.2 Theory and fundamentals, 367
12.2.1 The mathematics of decay chains, 367
12.2.2 Mechanisms of producing disequilibrium, 369
12.3 Methods and analytical techniques, 369
12.3.1 Analytical techniques, 369
12.4 Applications, 372
12.4.1 U-series dating of carbonates, 372
12.4.2 U-series dating in silicate rocks, 378
12.5 Summary, 389
12.6 References, 390
13 Cosmogenic nuclides, 395
13.1 Introduction, 395
13.2 History, 395
13.3 Theory, fundamentals, and systematics, 396
13.3.1 Cosmic rays, 396
13.3.2 Distribution of cosmic rays on Earth, 396
13.3.3 What makes a cosmogenic nuclide detectable and useful?, 397
13.3.4 Types of cosmic-ray reactions, 398
13.3.5 Cosmic-ray attenuation, 399
13.3.6 Calibrating cosmogenic nuclide-production rates in rocks, 400
13.4 Applications, 401
13.4.1 Types of cosmogenic nuclide applications, 401
13.4.2 Extraterrestrial cosmogenic nuclides, 401
13.4.3 Meteoric cosmogenic nuclides, 402
13.5 Conclusion, 415
13.6 References, 416
14 Extinct radionuclide chronology, 421
14.1 Introduction, 421
14.2 History, 422
14.3 Systematics and applications, 423
14.3.1 26Al-26Mg, 423
14.3.2 53Mn-53Cr chronometry, 425
14.3.3 107Pd-107Ag, 428
14.3.4 182Hf-182W, 430
14.3.5 I-Pu-Xe, 433
14.3.6 146Sm-142Nd, 436
14.4 Conclusions, 441
14.5 References, 441
Index, 445
Peter W. Reiners, University of Arizona, USA
Richard W. Carlson, Carnegie Institution for Science, USA
Paul R. Renne, Berkeley Geochronology Center and University of California, USA
Kari M. Cooper, University of California, USA
Darryl E. Granger, Purdue University, USA
Noah M. McLean, University of Kansas, USA
Blair Schoene, Princeton University, USA
Richard W. Carlson, Carnegie Institution for Science, USA
Paul R. Renne, Berkeley Geochronology Center and University of California, USA
Kari M. Cooper, University of California, USA
Darryl E. Granger, Purdue University, USA
Noah M. McLean, University of Kansas, USA
Blair Schoene, Princeton University, USA
