| | Contents | |
| | | |
| |
| 0 | Introduction to nonwovens | 1 |
| 0.1 | Definition of nonwovens | 1 |
| 0.2 | Nonwoven manufacturing processes | 3 |
| 0.3 | Nonwoven properties and applications, including environmental considerations | 4 |
| 0.4 | Development of the nonwovens industry | 6 |
| 0.5 | Future perspectives | 11 |
| Part I | Raw materials for the production of nonwovens | |
| 1 | Fibrous material | 15 |
| 1.1 | Natural fibres | 15 |
| 1.1.1 | Vegetable fibres | 15 |
| 1.1.2 | Animal fibres | 20 |
| 1.2 | Chemical fibres | 21 |
| 1.2.1 | Chemical fibres made from natural polymers | 22 |
| 1.2.2 | Man-made fibres from synthetic polymers | 32 |
| 1.2.3 | Modification of synthetic fibres | 69 |
| 1.3 | Other fibres made in industrial processes | 74 |
| 1.3.1 | Glass fibres | 74 |
| 1.3.2 | Silicate fibres | 76 |
| 1.3.3 | Carbon fibres | 76 |
| 1.3.4 | Boron fibres | 76 |
| 1.3.5 | Metal fibres | 76 |
| 1.4 | Reclaimed fibres | 77 |
| 1.4.1 | Basics | 77 |
| 1.4.2 | Making textile waste into reclaimed fibres | 78 |
| 1.4.2.1 | Pre-treatment | 78 |
| 1.4.2.2 | Principle of reclaiming | 79 |
| 1.4.2.3 | Subsequent treatment | 80 |
| 1.4.3 | Reclaimed fibre quality | 80 |
| 1.4.4 | Reclaimed fibre application | 83 |
| 2 | Other raw materials | 87 |
| 2.1 | Cellulose (Pulp) | 87 |
| 2.2 | Granules | 87 |
| 2.2.1 | General discussion of physical properties | 90 |
| 2.2.2 | Polyolefins | 92 |
| 2.2.3 | Polyesters | 93 |
| 2.2.4 | Polyamides | 94 |
| 2.3 | Powders | 96 |
| 2.3.1 | Polymer powders | 96 |
| 2.3.1.1 | Polyacrylonitrile | 96 |
| 2.3.1.2 | Further copolymers | 97 |
| 2.3.2 | Additives | 97 |
| 2.3.3 | Stabilizers | 98 |
| 2.3.4 | Pigments | 99 |
| 2.4 | Absorbent polymers | 100 |
| 2.4.1 | Absorption mechanism | 101 |
| 2.4.2 | Production process | 101 |
| 2.4.2.1 | Suspension polymerization | 101 |
| 2.4.2.2 | Solution polymerization | 102 |
| 2.4.2.3 | Surface crosslinking | 102 |
| 2.4.2.4 | In-situ polymerization | 103 |
| 2.4.3 | Test methods | 104 |
| 2.4.3.1 | Characteristic data of absorbent polymer | 104 |
| 2.4.4 | Field of application | 105 |
| 2.4.5 | Summary | 106 |
| 2.5 | Spin finishes | 106 |
| 2.5.1 | General | 106 |
| 2.5.1.1 | Definitions | 106 |
| 2.5.1.2 | The requirements placed on spin finishes | 107 |
| 2.5.1.3 | Compositions of spin finishes | 108 |
| 2.5.2 | The application of spin finishes | 109 |
| 2.5.2.1 | Man-made fibre production | 109 |
| 2.5.2.2 | Processing | 110 |
| 2.5.3 | Test methods | 110 |
| 2.5.3.1 | Tests on the spin finishing agent | 110 |
| 2.5.3.2 | Tests on spin finished fibre material | 111 |
| 2.5.4 | Spin finishes on nonwovens | 113 |
| 2.5.4.1 | General | 113 |
| 2.5.4.2 | Nonwoven fabric manufacture and spin finishes | 113 |
| 2.5.4.3 | End product and spin finish | 114 |
| 2.5.5 | Future prospects | 115 |
| 3 | Binders | 119 |
| 3.1 | Introduction | 119 |
| 3.2 | Binder fluids | 120 |
| 3.2.1 | Chemical structure, construction principle | 121 |
| 3.2.1.1 | Monomers | 121 |
| 3.2.1.2 | Functional groups, crosslinking agents | 123 |
| 3.2.2 | Binder fluids and their processing | 123 |
| 3.2.3 | Binder fluids and the properties of nonwoven fabrics | 125 |
| 3.2.4 | Focal points of development | 127 |
| 3.3 | Adhesive fibres | 129 |
| 3.3.1 | Soluble fibres | 129 |
| 3.3.2 | Hotmelt adhesive fibres | 130 |
| 3.3.2.1 | Appearance | 130 |
| 3.3.2.2 | Chemical structure | 130 |
| 3.3.2.3 | Mechanism of bonding | 134 |
| 3.3.2.4 | Properties | 136- |
| Part II | Processes to manufacture nonwovens | |
| 4 | Dry-law process | 141 |
| 4.1 | Nonwoven fabrics | 141 |
| 4.1.1 | Fibre preparation | 141 |
| 4.1.2 | Production of fibrous webs by carding | 148 |
| 4.1.2.1 | Roller carding theory | 149 |
| 4.1.2.2 | Plant technology | 157 |
| 4.1.2.3 | Web forming | 159 |
| 4.1.2.4 | Web drafting | 168 |
| 4.1.3 | Fibre webs following the aerodynamic procedure | 170 |
| 4.1.3.1 | Aim of the procedure | 170 |
| 4.1.3.2 | Description of the procedure | 170 |
| 4.1.3.3 | Machines for aerodynamic web forming | 174 |
| 4.1.4 | Perpendicular laid fibrous highlofts STRUTO and ROTIS | 180 |
| 4.1.4.1 | Technologies of production perpendicular laid highlofts | 181 |
| 4.1.4.2 | Properties of perpendicular laid highlofts | 185 |
| 4.2 | Extrusion nonwovens | 188 |
| 4.2.1 | Use of polymers | 189 |
| 4.2.2 | Generally, on the process technology and equipment to be used | 192 |
| 4.2.3 | Processes to make spunlaid nonwovens and composites | 204 |
| 4.2.4 | Processes to make fine-fibre spunbonded nonwovens | 221 |
| 4.2.4.1 | Meltblowing process | 221 |
| 4.2.4.2 | Flashspinning process | 224 |
| 4.2.4.3 | Electrostatic spunbonding | 225 |
| 4.2.5 | Processes to make film nonwovens | 225 |
| 5 | Wet lay method | 237 |
| 5.1 | Principle of the method | 238 |
| 5.2 | Development | 238 |
| 5.3 | Raw materials and fibre preparation | 239 |
| 5.3.1 | Fibre types | 241 |
| 5.3.2 | Production of short-staple fibres | 245 |
| 5.3.3 | Binders | 245 |
| 5.3.4 | Fibre preparation | 247 |
| 5.4 | Construction of wet lay systems | 250 |
| 5.4.1 | Web forming | 256 |
| 5.4.2 | Bonding | 262 |
| 5.4.2.1 | Adding the binder fibres | 262 |
| 5.4.2.2 | Adding binder dispersions to the pulp | 262 |
| 5.4.2.3 | Adding the binder to nonwoven web | 263 |
| 5.4.2.4 | Pressing | 264 |
| 5.4.3 | Web drying | 265 |
| 5.4.3.1 | Contact drying | 265 |
| 5.4.3.2 | Circulating-air dryers | 265 |
| 5.4.3.3 | Tunnel dryers | 266 |
| 5.4.3.4 | Radiation drying | 266 |
| 5.4.4 | Batching | 266- |
| 6 | Web bonding | 269 |
| 6.1 | Needling process | 270 |
| 6.1.1 | The principle of needling | 270 |
| 6.1.1.1 | Batt feeding | 272 |
| 6.1.1.2 | Needling zone | 273 |
| 6.1.1.3 | Felt removal | 282 |
| 6.1.2 | High-performance needling technique | 282 |
| 6.1.3 | Surface structuring | 283 |
| 6.1.4 | Paper machine clothing | 286 |
| 6.1.5 | Needle characteristics | 289 |
| 6.1.6 | Influence of needling conditions on the needle felt's chartacteristics | 293 |
| 6.2 | Loop formation processes | 302 |
| 6.2.1 | System of processes | 304 |
| 6.2.1.1 | Stitch-bonding processes | 305 |
| 6.2.1.2 | Stitch-bonding process Malivlies | 312 |
| 6.2.1.3 | Pile stitch-bonding process with base material | 318 |
| 6.2.1.4 | Loop stitch-bonding without base material | 320 |
| 6.2.1.5 | Loop stitch-bonding with double-sided meshing | 321 |
| 6.2.1.6 | Loop stitch-bonding to bond two fabrics by meshing | 323 |
| 6.2.2 | Warp knitting | 324 |
| 6.2.3 | Knitting | 325 |
| 6.3 | Hydroentanglement process | 326 |
| 6.3.1 | Process development | 327 |
| 6.3.2 | Fibre and process influences | 334 |
| 6.3.3 | Bonding lines | 336 |
| 6.4 | Thermal processes | 341 |
| 6.4.1 | Drying | 341 |
| 6.4.1.1 | Convection drying | 342 |
| 6.4.1.2 | Contact drying | 352 |
| 6.4.1.3 | Radiation drying | 353 |
| 6.4.2 | Hot-air bonding | 353 |
| 6.4.2.1 | Basics | 353 |
| 6.4.2.2 | Process technology | 355 |
| 6.4.2.3 | Line technology | 359 |
| 6.4.3 | Heatsetting | 361 |
| 6.4.4 | Thermal calender bonding | 363 |
| 6.4.4.1 | Process technology | 364 |
| 6.4.4.2 | Line technology | 367 |
| 6.4.5 | Ultrasound bonding | 369 |
| 6.5 | Chemical methods | 369 |
| 6.5.1 | Introduction | 369 |
| 6.5.2 | Methods for cohesive bonding | 372 |
| 6.5.2.1 | Cohesive bonding through thermoplasticity | 372 |
| 6.5.2.2 | Cohesive bonding in the case of a dissolved fibre surface | 372 |
| 6.5.3 | Adhesive bonding methods | 373 |
| 6.5.3.1 | Application of liquid binder in excess | 374 |
| 6.5.3.2 | Removal of excess liquor | 376 |
| 6.5.3.3 | Metered binder application to one side | 378 |
| 6.5.3.4 | Application of foamed binder fluids | 384 |
| 6.5.3.5 | Application of powder | 386 |
| 6.6 | Composite materials | 389 |
| 6.6.1 | Nonwoven composites | 389 |
| 6.6.1.1 | Variants of processes | 390 |
| 6.6.1.2 | Bonding by means of needle-punching | 391 |
| 6.6.1.3 | Bonding by means of stitch-bonding | 393 |
| 6.6.1.4 | Bonding by means of entangling | 394 |
| 6.6.1.5 | Bonding by means of glueing | 395 |
| 6.6.2 | Nonwovens suitable to make composite materials | 398 |
| Part III | Finishing nonwovens | |
| 7 | Mechanical finishing | 411 |
| 7.1 | Shrinking | 411 |
| 7.1.1 | Creation and removal of distortions | 411 |
| 7.1.2 | Deliberate shrinkage | 411 |
| 7.2 | Compacting and creping | 412 |
| 7.2.1 | Compacting -- the Clupak process | 412 |
| 7.2.2. | Creping -- the Micrex microcrepe process | 413 |
| 7.3 | Glazing, calendering, pressing | 414 |
| 7.3.1 | Glazing or rolling calenders | 414 |
| 7.3.2 | Embossing or goffering calenders | 414 |
| 7.3.3 | Felt calenders, transfer calenders | 415 |
| 7.3.4 | Rotary pressing machines | 415 |
| 7.3.5 | Moulding, stamping | 415 |
| 7.4 | Perforating, slitting, breaking | 416 |
| 7.4.1 | Perforating | 416 |
| 7.4.2 | Slitting | 416 |
| 7.4.3 | Breaking | 417 |
| 7.5 | Splitting, emerizing, suede finishing, shearing, raising | 417 |
| 7.5.1 | Splitting | 417 |
| 7.5.2 | Emerizing, suede finishing | 418 |
| 7.5.3 | Shearing, raising | 418 |
| 7.6 | Singeing | 418 |
| 7.7 | Sewing, quilting and welding | 419 |
| 7.7.1 | Cover-seaming and quilting | 419 |
| 7.7.2 | Ultrasonic welding | 419 |
| 7.7.3 | High-frequency welding | 419 |
| 7.8 | Other mechanical finishing methods | 420 |
| 8 | Chemical finishing | 421 |
| 8.1 | Washing | 421 |
| 8.2 | Dyeing | 422 |
| 8.2.1 | Stock and spin dyeing | 422 |
| 8.2.2 | Dyeing and bonding | 423 |
| 8.2.3 | Subsequent dyeing | 423 |
| 8.2.4 | Different dyeing methods | 424 |
| 8.2.5 | Cold pad batch dyeing | 424 |
| 8.2.6 | Continuous dyeing | 425 |
| 8.3 | Printing | 425 |
| 8.3.1 | Printing of lightweight nonwovens | 425 |
| 8.3.2 | Printing of heavy nonwovens (needle-punched nonwoven floor coverings) | 426 |
| 8.3.3 | Spray printing | 427 |
| 8.3.4 | Transfer printing | 428 |
| 8.4 | Finishing, softening, special effects | 428 |
| 8.4.1 | Machine facts and possibilities | 429 |
| 8.4.2 | Stiffening finishes | 429 |
| 8.4.2.1 | Finishing of toe and heel caps on footwear | 429 |
| 8.4.2.2 | Finishing of nonwovens for roofing felts | 430 |
| 8.4.2.3 | Finishing of glass fibre nonwovens for glass fibre composites | 430 |
| 8.4.3 | Softening | 430 |
| 8.4.4 | Antistatic finishing | 431 |
| 8.4.5 | Soil-repellent finishing | 432 |
| 8.4.6 | Water-repellent and oil-repellent finishing | 432 |
| 8.4.7 | Hygiene finishing | 432 |
| 8.4.8 | Flame resistant finishing | 433 |
| 8.4.9 | Absorbent and water absorbent finishing | 433 |
| 8.4.10 | Dust-bonding treatment | 434 |
| 8.5 | Coating | 435 |
| 8.5.1 | Coating methods | 435 |
| 8.5.1.1 | Kiss roll coating | 435 |
| 8.5.1.2 | Rotogravure coating | 436 |
| 8.5.1.3 | Rotary screen coating | 436 |
| 8.5.1.4 | Knife or doctor coating | 437 |
| 8.5.1.5 | Extrusion coating | 438 |
| 8.5.1.6 | Non-contact coating | 439 |
| 8.5.1.7 | Release coating | 439 |
| 8.5.2 | Coating effects | 440 |
| 8.5.2.1 | Non-slip finishing | 440 |
| 8.5.2.2 | Mouldable coating | 441 |
| 8.5.2.3 | Self-adhesive coating | 441 |
| 8.5.2.4 | Foam coating | 442 |
| 8.5.2.5 | Loose lay coating | 445 |
| 8.5.2.6 | Microporous coating | 446 |
| 8.5.2.7 | Drainage coating | 446 |
| 8.5.2.8 | Heat-sealing coating | 447 |
| 8.6 | Laminating | 450 |
| 8.6.1 | Wet laminating | 451 |
| 8.6.2 | Dry laminating | 451 |
| 8.6.2.1 | Use of adhesive nonwovens | 452 |
| 8.6.3 | Examples of laminating | 452 |
| 8.7 | Flocking | 454 |
| 8.8 | New processes and products | 455 |
| 8.9 | Ecology and economy | 456- |
| Part IV | Peculiarities with regard to ready-making nonwovens | |
| 9 | The making up of finished products | 463 |
| 9.1 | Concepts and definitions | 463 |
| 9.2 | Product development | 465 |
| 9.2.1 | Product development for garment textiles | 465 |
| 9.2.2 | Product development for decor fabrics and home textiles | 468 |
| 9.2.3 | Product development for technical textiles | 468 |
| 9.3 | Production preparation | 469 |
| 9.4 | Production | 471 |
| 9.4.1 | Spreading | 471 |
| 9.4.2 | Cutting | 472 |
| 9.4.3 | Joining and assembly | 477 |
| 9.4.4 | Ironing | 482 |
| 9.5 | Packaging | 483 |
| 9.6 | Mechanization and automation | 483 |
| Part V | Characteristics and application of nonwovens | |
| 10 | Nonwovens for hygiene | 489 |
| 11 | The use of nonwovens in medicine -- safety aspects | 495 |
| 11.1 | General requirements | 499 |
| 11.2 | Design and construction | 500 |
| 11.3 | Information to the user | 501 |
| 11.4 | Conclusion | 502 |
| 12 | Nonwovens for cleaning and household products | 503 |
| 12.1 | Market situation | 503 |
| 12.2 | Wet and damp-cleaning products | 504 |
| 12.2.1 | Floor cloths and materials for floor cleaning systems | 506 |
| 12.2.2 | Durable wiping cloths | 507 |
| 12.2.3 | Disposable and semi-disposable wiping cloths | 507 |
| 12.2.4 | Synthetic leather (Chamois type) | 509 |
| 12.3 | Dry and damp-cleaning products | 509 |
| 12.3.1 | Microfibre nonwovens | 509 |
| 12.3.2 | Polyvinyl alcohol nonwovens | 511 |
| 12.3.3 | Impregnated cloths | 511 |
| 12.4 | Scouring media | 511 |
| 12.4.1 | Pan scourers, scouring sponges and pads | 512 |
| 12.4.2 | Floor pads | 512 |
| 13 | Nonwovens for home textiles | 515 |
| 13.1 | Nonwovens for upholstery material | 515 |
| 13.2 | Nonwovens for floorcoverings | 517 |
| 13.3 | Nonwoven fabrics for wallcoverings | 519 |
| 13.4 | Nonwoven fabrics as furnishing fabrics | 520 |
| 13.5 | Tufting substrate | 520 |
| 14 | Nonwovens for apparel | 523 |
| 14.1 | Nonwoven interlinings | 523 |
| 14.1.1 | Introduction | 523 |
| 14.1.2 | History of nonwoven interlinings | 523 |
| 14.1.3 | Functions of nonwoven interlinings | 524 |
| 14.1.3.1 | Interlining fabric for shaping and support | 524 |
| 14.1.3.2 | Nonwoven interlining for stabilizing and/or stiffening | 525 |
| 14.1.3.3 | Nonwoven interlinings for providing bulk | 525 |
| 14.1.4 | Properties of nonwoven interlinings | 525 |
| 14.1.5 | Functional elements of nonwoven interlinings | 527 |
| 14.1.6 | Outlook | 528 |
| 14.2 | Nonwovens for protective clothing | 528 |
| 14.3 | Nonwoven support materials for footwear | 536 |
| 15 | Nonwovens for technical applications | 545 |
| 15.1 | Insulation | 545 |
| 15.1.1 | Fire, heat, sound | 545 |
| 15.1.2 | Electrical insulation | 554 |
| 15.2 | Filtration | 557 |
| 15.2.1 | Dry filtration | 560 |
| 15.2.1.1 | General | 560 |
| 15.2.1.2 | Functional requirements properties | 562 |
| 15.2.1.3 | Surface filters | 563 |
| 15.2.1.4 | Depth filters | 568 |
| 15.2.2 | Liquid filtration | 570 |
| 15.2.2.1 | Liquid filters based on nonwovens | 572 |
| 15.2.2.2 | Variables in design of liquid filters | 573 |
| 15.3 | Building and construction industry | 576 |
| 15.3.1 | Geononwovens | 576 |
| 15.3.1.1 | Functions and requirements | 578 |
| 15.3.1.2 | Selected examples of the uses of nonwovens | 581 |
| 15.3.1.3 | Outlook | 584 |
| 15.3.2 | Bituminous roofing membranes | 586 |
| 15.3.2.1 | Introduction | 586 |
| 15.3.2.2 | Market overview | 587 |
| 15.3.2.3 | The bituminization of polyester nonwovens | 588 |
| 15.3.2.4 | The end use requirements of membranes with polyester inlay | 590 |
| 15.3.2.5 | Trends and developments | 592 |
| 15.4 | Agriculture | 593 |
| 15.4.1 | Introduction | 593 |
| 15.4.2 | Requirements to be met by agricultural nonwovens | 594 |
| 15.4.3 | Technological processes | 595 |
| 15.4.4 | Application | 595 |
| 15.4.5 | Market trends | 597 |
| 15.5 | The motor vehicle industry | 598 |
| 15.5.1 | The market | 598 |
| 15.5.2 | The car industry | 599 |
| 15.5.2.1 | Required characteristics | 601 |
| 15.5.2.2 | Acoustic and thermal insulation -- inside the car | 605 |
| 15.5.2.3 | Acoustic and thermal insulation -- the engine housing | 607 |
| 15.5.2.4 | Covering materials -- interior of the car | 607 |
| 15.5.2.5 | Nonwovens for seat cushioning and laminated nonwovens | 610 |
| 15.5.2.6 | Automotive filter fabrics | 612 |
| 15.5.2.7 | Nonwovens as backing substrates, microfibre webs and other nonwovens | 615 |
| 15.5.3 | The aircraft, shipbuilding and railways industries | 616 |
| 15.5.4 | Outlook | 617 |
| 15.6 | Papermaking fabrics | 617 |
| 16 | Re-utilization of nonwovens | 629 |
| 16.1 | Waste from the production of nonwovens | 629 |
| 16.1.1 | Measures to reduce waste | 630 |
| 16.2 | Used waste of nonwoven materials | 630 |
| 16.2.1 | Disposables | 630 |
| 16.2.2 | Long-life products | 631 |
| 16.3 | Utilization of nonwoven waste | 631 |
| 16.3.1 | Mechanical processes to recover fibres | 631 |
| 16.3.2 | Re-granulation | 631 |
| 16.3.3 | Production of textile chips and their application | 632 |
| 16.3.4 | Processing nonwoven waste on KEMAFIL machines | 632 |
| 16.3.5 | Re-use of nonwoven waste | 633- |
| Part VI | Regulations to be observed and processes to test raw materials and nonwoven products | |
| 17 | General priciples | 637 |
| 17.1 | Sampling and statistics | 637 |
| 17.2 | Testing climate | 638 |
| 17.3 | Standards and specifications | 638 |
| 18 | Testing processes | 661 |
| 18.1 | Raw materials for nonwovens | 661 |
| 18.1.1 | Fibres | 661 |
| 18.1.2 | Granulates | 668 |
| 18.1.3 | Binders | 669 |
| 18.2 | Nonwovens | 670 |
| 18.2.1 | Textile-physical tests | 670 |
| 18.2.2 | Fastness testing | 681 |
| 18.2.3 | Testing of burning behaviour | 687 |
| 18.2.4 | Testing of the behaviour during laundering/dry cleaning | 694 |
| 18.2.5 | Human ecological tests | 694 |
| 18.3 | Test processes relating to end-use | 696 |
| 18.3.1 | Hygiene and medical products | 696 |
| 18.3.2 | Cleaning cloths and household products | 697 |
| 18.3.3 | Household textiles | 698 |
| 18.3.4 | Protective clothing | 699 |
| 18.3.5 | Filter fabrics | 703 |
| 18.3.6 | Geononwovens | 708 |
| 19 | Quality surveillance systems and quality assurance systems | 717 |
| 20 | Coming development in nonwovens industry | 727 |
| | Index of names, companies, organizations, and products | 731 |
| | Subject index | 737 |
