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	Fachgebiet \| Materialwissenschaften \| Konstruktionswerkstoffe \| Lieferbare Titel \| Neutrons and Synchrotron Radiation in Engineering Materials Science \| Inhaltsverzeichnis


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	Contents


	Preface	XVII
	List of Contributors	XXI
Part I	General	1
1	Microstructure and Properties of Engineering Materials Helmut Clemens and Christina Scheu	3
1.1	Introduction	3
1.2	Microstructure	5
1.2.1	Crystal Defects	8
1.2.2	Grain (Phase) Boundaries and Twins	8
1.2.3	Precipitates and Dispersions	9
1.3	Microstructure and Properties	12
1.4	Microstructural Characterization	15
	References	20
2	Internal Stresses in Engineering Materials Anke Rita Pyzalla	21
2.1	Definition	21
2.1.1	Stress Tensor, Strain Tensor, and Elasticity Tensor	21
2.1.1.1	Stress Tensor	21
2.1.1.2	Strain Tensor	22
2.1.2	Definitions, Residual Stresses	24
2.1.2.1	Stress Equilibrium	24
2.1.2.2	Residual Macro- and Microstresses	25
2.2	Origin of Residual Macro- and Microstresses	27
2.2.1	Residual Stress Formation in Primary Forming Processes	29
2.2.2	Residual Stress Formation in Heat Treatment Processes	30
2.2.2.1	Residual Stresses in a Material without Phase Transformation (Pure Cooling Residual Stresses)	30
2.2.2.2	Residual Stresses in a Material with Phase Transformation	31
2.2.2.3	Residual Stress Formation in Surface Hardening Processes (Nitriding, Carbo-Nitriding, and Case Hardening)	33
2.2.3	Residual Stress Formation in Forming Processes	34
2.2.3.1	Deep-Rolling Residual Stresses	35
2.2.3.2	Cold Extrusion Residual Stresses	37
2.2.4	Residual Stress Formation in Metal Cutting Manufacturing	39
2.2.4.1	Grinding Residual Stresses	40
2.2.5	Residual Stress Formation in Joining Processes	42
2.2.6	Residual Stress Formation in Coatings	46
2.3	Relevance	48
2.3.1	Failure due to Residual Stress Formation or Residual Stress Relief Induced by Temperature Changes	49
2.3.2	Influence of Residual Stresses on Component Failure Under Static and Dynamic Mechanical Loads	50
2.3.3	Influence of Residual Stresses on Component Failure in Corrosive Environments	53
2.3.4	Influence of Residual Stresses on Wear	53
	References	55
3	Texture and Texture Analysis in Engineering Materials Heinz-Günter Brokmeier and Sang-Bong Yi	57
3.1	Introduction	57
3.2	Pole Figures	60
3.3	Texture Measurements on Laboratory Scale	62
3.3.1	X-ray Diffraction	62
3.3.2	Electron Diffraction	63
3.4	Texture Measurements at Large-Scale Facilities	65
3.4.1	Neutron Diffraction	65
3.4.1.1	Texture of Semifinished Products	68
3.4.2	Texture Analysis Using Synchrotron X-rays	70
3.4.2.1	Local Texture Measurement in an Extruded Mg Rod	73
3.4.2.2	Global Texture in Cu Wire	74
3.4.2.3	In situ Texture Measurement at Elevated Temperatures	74
3.4.2.4	In situ Texture Measurement Under Loading	75
	References	76
4	Physical Properties of Photons and Neutrons Andreas Schreyer	79
4.1	Introduction	79
4.2	Interaction of X-Ray Photons and Neutrons with Individual Atoms	80
4.2.1	Neutrons	81
4.2.2	X-Rays	83
4.3	Scattering of X-Ray Photons and Neutrons from Ensembles of Atoms	86
	References	89
5	Radiation Sources	91
5.1	Generation and Properties of Neutrons Wolfgang Knop, Philipp Klaus Pranzas, and Peter Schreiner	91
5.1.1	Introduction	91
5.1.2	Generation of Neutrons	91
5.1.2.1	Research Reactors	91
5.1.2.2	Spallation Sources	93
5.1.3	Instrumentation	96
	References	97
5.2	Production and Properties of Synchrotron Radiation Rolf Treusch	97
5.2.1	Introduction	97
5.2.2	Properties of Synchrotron Radiation	100
5.2.3	Sources of Synchrotron Radiation	105
5.2.3.1	Bending Magnets	106
5.2.3.2	Wigglers and Undulators	107
5.2.4	Outlook: Free Electron Lasers	109
5.2.5	Summary	111
	References	112
Part II	Methods	113
6	Introduction to Diffraction Methods for Internal Stress Analyses Walter Reimers	115
6.1	General Aspects	115
6.2	Principles of Diffraction Methods	116
6.3	Principles of Strain Determination by Diffraction Methods	118
6.4	Determination of the Stress-Free Interplanar Lattice Distance d₀	121
6.5	sin² -Technique	122
6.6	Nonlinear Lattice Strain Distributions	123
6.6.1	Anisotropy	123
6.6.2	Strain/Stress Gradients	125
6.6.3	Shear Strains/Stresses	127
6.7	Diffraction Elastic Constants	128
6.7.1	Calculation of DEC	129
6.7.2	Experimental Determination of the DEC	129
6.8	Experimental Set-up and Measuring Procedures	130
6.8.1	Experimental Set-up	130
6.8.1.1	Diffractometers	130
6.8.1.2	Diaphragms	132
6.8.1.3	Detectors	132
6.8.2	Measuring Procedures	132
6.9	Overview on In-depth and Local Residual Stress Analysis	133
	References	134
7	Stress Analysis by Angle-Dispersive Neutron Diffraction Peter Staron	137
7.1	Introduction	137
7.2	Diffractometer for Residual Stress Analysis	138
7.2.1	Set-up of a Diffractometer for Strain Scanning	138
7.2.2	Monochromator	139
7.2.3	Slit System	140
7.2.4	Sample Positioning	141
7.2.5	Detector	141
7.3	Measurement and Data Analysis	142
7.3.1	Gauge Volume and Sample Positioning	142
7.3.2	Data Reduction and Analysis	144
7.3.2.1	Data Reduction and Peak Fitting	144
7.3.2.2	Calculation of Stresses	145
7.3.2.3	Macro and Microstresses	147
7.3.2.4	Stress-Free Reference	147
7.4	Examples	148
7.4.1	Residual Stresses in Friction Stir Welded Aluminum Sheets	148
7.4.2	Residual Stresses in Water-Quenched Turbine Discs	150
7.5	Summary and Outlook	152
	References	152
8	Stress Analysis by Energy-Dispersive Neutron Diffraction Javier Roberto Santisteban	155
8.1	Introduction	155
8.2	Time-of-Flight Neutron Diffraction	155
8.2.1	TOF Peak Shape and Data Analysis Packages	157
8.3	TOF Strain Scanners	159
8.3.1	Counting Times and Resolution	160
8.3.2	Neutron Optics and Time Focusing	163
8.4	A Virtual Laboratory for Strain Scanning	164
8.5	Evolution of Intergranular Stresses	168
8.6	TOF Transmission Analysis	170
8.6.1	Bragg Edges	171
8.6.2	Strain Mapping	172
8.6.3	Quantitative Phase Analysis	172
8.6.4	Other Applications	174
8.7	Conclusions	174
	References	175
9	Residual Stress Analysis by Monochromatic High-Energy X-rays René Valéry Martins	177
9.1	Basic Set-ups	177
9.2	Principle of Slit Imaging and Data Reconstruction	180
9.3	The Conical Slit	181
9.3.1	Working Principle	181
9.3.2	Capabilities	182
9.3.3	Example	183
9.4	The Spiral Slit	184
9.4.1	Functional Principle	184
9.4.2	Capabilities	186
9.4.3	Example	186
9.5	Simultaneous Strain Measurements in Individual Bulk Grains	188
9.6	Coarse Grain Effects	189
9.7	Analysis of Diffraction Data from Area Detectors	191
9.8	Matrix for Comparison and Decision Taking Which Technique to Use for a Specific Problem	193
	References	193
10	Residual Stress Analysis by White High Energy X-Rays	195
10.1	Reflection Mode Christoph Genzel	195
10.1.1	Motivation	195
10.1.2	Basic Relations in Depth-Resolved Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Stress Analysis (XSA) in Reflection Geometry	196
10.1.3	Experimental Set-up	199
10.1.4	Example for Depth-Resolved Residual Stress Analysis by ED Diffraction	200
10.1.5	Concluding Remarks and Prospects	205
	References	206
10.2	Transmission Mode Anke Rita Pyzalla	207
10.2.1	Motivation	207
10.2.2	Experiment Set-up and Experimental Details	208
10.2.2.1	Penetration Depth	208
10.2.2.2	Gauge Volume and Spatial Resolution	209
10.2.2.3	Example for an Experiment Set-up	211
10.2.3	Data Evaluation	213
10.2.4	Examples	214
10.2.5	Conclusions	218
	References	218
11	Diffraction Imaging for Microstructure Analysis Thomas Wroblewski	221
11.1	Introduction, the Principle of Diffraction Imaging	221
11.2	The MAXIM Experiment at HASYLAB Beamline G3	222
11.3	Data Structure	223
11.4	Strategies for Data Reduction and Visualization	224
11.5	Outlook, Bulk Imaging	226
	References	228
12	Basics of Small-Angle Scattering Methods Philipp Klaus Pranzas	229
12.1	Common Features of a SAS Instrument	229
12.2	Contrast	230
12.3	Scattering Curve	230
12.4	Power Law/Scattering by Fractal Systems	232
12.5	Guinier and Porod Approximations	233
12.6	Macroscopic Differential Scattering Cross Section	234
12.7	Model Calculation of Size Distributions	235
12.8	Magnetic Structures	236
	References	237
13	Small-Angle Neutron Scattering Philipp Klaus Pranzas	239
13.1	Nanocrystalline Magnesium Hydride for the Reversible Storage of Hydrogen	240
13.2	Precipitates in Steel	242
13.3	SiO₂ Nanoparticles in a Polymer Matrix - an Industrial Application	245
13.4	Green Surfactants	246
	References	248
14	Decomposition Kinetics in Copper-Cobalt Alloy Systems: Applications of Small-Angle X-ray Scattering Günter Goerigk	249
14.1	Introduction	249
14.2	ASAXS Fundamentals	249
14.3	Results of ASAXS Experiments Characterizing the Decomposition in Copper-Cobalt Alloys	252
14.4	Outlook	255
14.5	Summary	255
	References	256
15	B3 Imaging Wolfgang Treimer	257
15.1	Radiography	257
15.1.1	Fundamentals	257
15.1.2	Interactions of Neutrons with Matter	259
15.1.3	Geometries	261
15.1.4	Resolution Functions	264
15.1.5	Image Degradation	267
15.1.6	Other Imaging Techniques	269
15.2	Tomography	274
15.2.1	Mathematical Introduction	274
15.2.2	Slice Theorem, Shannon Theorem	276
15.2.3	Image Reconstruction	277
15.3	New Developments in Neutron Tomography	281
	References	285
16	Neutron and Synchrotron-Radiation-Based Imaging for Applications in Materials Science - From Macro- to Nanotomography Felix Beckmann	287
16.1	Introduction	287
16.1.1	Attenuation-Contrast Projections	287
16.1.2	Phase-Contrast Projections	288
16.1.3	Phase-Enhanced Projections	289
16.1.4	Direct Phase-Contrast Projections	289
16.1.5	Indirect Phase-Contrast Projections	290
16.2	Parallel-Beam Tomography	290
16.2.1	Measurement and Reconstruction	291
16.2.2	Density Resolution and Detector Quality	292
16.2.3	Data Evaluation and Visualization	295
16.3	Macrotomography Using Neutrons	296
16.3.1	Experimental Set-up	296
16.3.2	Measurements and Results	297
16.4	Microtomography Using Synchrotron Radiation	300
16.4.1	Beamline Optics	300
16.4.2	Experimental Set-up	301
16.5	Summary and Outlook	306
	References	306
17	-Tomography of Engineering Materials Astrid Haibel	309
17.1	Advantages of Synchrotron Tomography	309
17.2	Applications and 3D Image Analysis	310
17.2.1	Discharging Processes in Alkaline Cells	310
17.2.2	Microstructural Investigations of Nb₃Sn Multifilamentary Superconductor Wires	312
17.2.3	Influence of the Foaming Agent on Metallic Foam Structures	314
17.3	Image Artifacts	316
17.3.1	Ring Artifacts	316
17.3.2	Image Noise	317
17.3.3	Edge Artifacts	318
17.3.4	Motion Artifacts	318
17.3.5	Centering Errors of the Rotation Axis	319
	References	320
18	Diffraction Enhanced Imaging Michael Lohmann	323
18.1	Introduction	324
18.1.1	Basics	324
18.1.2	Extinction Contrast	325
18.1.3	Principles of DEI	326
18.2	Experimental Set-up	328
18.3	Examples	329
18.3.1	Complete Set of DEI Images	329
18.3.2	Material Science	329
18.3.3	Example of Mineralogical Investigations	331
18.4	Conclusions	332
	References	332
Part III	New and Emerging Methods	333
19	3D X-ray Diffraction Microscope Henning Friis Poulsen, Wolfgang Ludwig, and Sren Schmidt	335
19.1	Basic Set-up and Strategy	336
19.1.1	The 3DXRD Microscope	338
19.2	Indexing and Characterization of Average Properties of Each Grain	339
19.2.1	Application I: Nucleation and Growth Studies	340
19.2.2	Application II: Plastic Deformation	341
19.2.3	Application III: Studies of Subgrains and Nanocrystalline Materials	342
19.3	Mapping of Grains and Orientations	343
19.3.1	Mode III: Mapping Grains in Undeformed Specimens	343
19.3.2	Mode IV: Mapping Orientations in Deformed Specimens	345
19.3.3	Application I: Recrystallization	346
19.3.4	Application II: Grain Growth	347
19.4	Combining 3DXRD and Tomography	348
19.4.1	Grain Mapping by Tomography	349
19.5	Outlook	350
	References	350
20	3D Micron-Resolution Laue Diffraction Gene E. Ice	353
20.1	Introduction	353
20.1.1	The Need for Polychromatic Microdiffraction	353
20.2	Theoretical Basis for Advanced Polychromatic Microdiffraction	355
20.2.1	Modified Ewald’s Sphere Description of Laue Diffraction	355
20.2.2	Qualitative Information: Phase, Texture, Elastic Strain, Dislocation Density	356
20.2.2.1	Phase	356
20.2.2.2	Texture	357
20.2.2.3	Dislocation Tensor	357
20.2.2.4	Elastic Strain Tensor	357
20.3	Technical Developments for an Automated 3D Probe	357
20.3.1	Source	358
20.3.2	Microbeam Monochromator	359
20.3.3	Nondispersive Focusing Optics	361
20.3.4	Area Detector	361
20.3.5	Differential Aperture	361
20.3.6	Software	362
20.4	Research Examples	363
20.4.1	3D Grain Boundary Networks	363
20.4.2	Deformation Behavior and Grain Boundaries	364
20.4.3	Deformation in Single Crystals	365
20.4.4	Grain Growth on Surfaces and in Three-Dimensions	366
20.4.5	Anomalous Grain Growth	367
20.5	Future Prospects and Opportunities	369
	References	370
21	Quantitative Analysis of Three-Dimensional Plastic Strain Fields Using Markers and X-ray Absorption Tomography Kristoffer Haldrup and John A. Wert	371
21.1	Introduction	371
21.2	Experimental Approach	372
21.2.1	Markers	372
21.2.2	Particle Tracking and DGT Calculation	372
21.2.3	Spatial Resolution	373
21.3	Results of Investigations	373
21.3.1	Homogeneous Deformation	373
21.3.2	Heterogenous Deformation	374
21.3.3	Microstructural Effects	375
21.4	Outlook	376
	References	377
22	Combined Diffraction and Tomography Anke Rita Pyzalla and Augusta Isaac	379
22.1	Introduction	379
22.2	Experimental Set-up	380
22.3	Example: Combined Diffraction and Tomography for Investigating Creep Damage Evolution	381
22.3.1	Scientific Background	381
22.3.2	Experimental Details	381
22.3.2.1	Miniature Creep Device	381
22.3.2.2	Tomography and Diffraction	381
22.3.2.3	Material	382
22.3.3	Results	382
22.4	Conclusions and Outlook	385
	References	386
Part IV	Industrial Applications	387
23	Diffraction-Based Residual Stress Analysis Applied to Problems in the Aircraft Industry Peter Staron, Funda S. Bayraktar, Mustafa Koak, Andreas Schreyer, Ulrike Cihak, Helmut Clemens, and Martin Stockinger	389
23.1	Motivation	389
23.2	Residual Stresses in Turbine Disks	390
23.2.1	Introduction	390
23.2.2	Material	391
23.2.3	Finite Element Modeling	393
23.2.4	Neutron Diffraction	395
23.2.5	Results	396
23.2.5.1	In Situ Tensile Test	396
23.2.5.2	Stresses in a Turbine Disk	397
23.2.5.3	Stresses in a Thin Plate	398
23.2.6	Summary	400
23.3	Residual Stresses in Laser-Welded Al Joints	400
23.3.1	Introduction	400
23.3.2	Materials and Welding	401
23.3.3	Neutron Diffraction	404
23.3.4	Stresses in Laser-Welded T-Joints	405
23.3.5	Stresses in Laser-Welded Butt Joints	407
23.3.6	Summary	408
23.4	Conclusions	409
	References	410
24	Optimization of Residual Stresses in Crankshafts Anke Rita Pyzalla	413
24.1	Introduction	413
24.2	Experimental Determination of Residual Stresses in Crankshafts	414
24.3	Experimental Results and Implications	416
24.4	Conclusions	418
	References	419
	Index	421

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