| | Contents | |
| | | |
| |
| | Preface | XXIII |
| | Introduction | XXV |
| 36 | Human Eye | 1 |
| 36.1 | Introduction | 3 |
| 36.1.1 | Basic Structure of the Eye | 3 |
| 36.1.2 | Optical Data of the Eye | 6 |
| 36.1.3 | Neuronal Structure | 8 |
| 36.1.4 | Threshold Sensitivity | 11 |
| 36.1.5 | Movements of the Eye | 12 |
| 36.1.6 | Stiles-Crawford Effect | 12 |
| 36.1.7 | Image Processing in the Brain | 13 |
| 36.2 | Optical System of the Eye | 16 |
| 36.2.1 | Accommodation | 16 |
| 36.2.2 | Axes of the Eye | 19 |
| 36.3 | Photometry and Adaptation | 20 |
| 36.3.1 | Iris | 20 |
| 36.3.2 | Adaptation | 21 |
| 36.3.3 | Dark Adaptation | 22 |
| 36.3.4 | Photometry of the Eye | 23 |
| 36.3.5 | Dazzling | 24 |
| 36.3.6 | Interpupillary Distance | 25 |
| 36.4 | Schematic Optical Models of the Eye | 25 |
| 36.4.1 | Introduction | 25 |
| 36.4.2 | Data of Some Schematic Eyes | 28 |
| 36.4.3 | Sample Calculations | 33 |
| 36.5 | Color Vision | 40 |
| 36.5.1 | Spectral Sensitivity of the Eye | 40 |
| 36.5.2 | Transmission of the Eye | 43 |
| 36.6 | Optical Performance of the Eye | 45 |
| 36.6.1 | Introduction | 45 |
| 36.6.2 | Point Spread Function | 45 |
| 36.6.3 | Field Aberrations | 46 |
| 36.6.4 | Chromatic Aberrations | 47 |
| 36.6.5 | Modulation Transfer Function | 50 |
| 36.6.6 | Visual Acuity | 57 |
| 36.6.7 | Resolution | 58 |
| 36.6.8 | Stray Light | 62 |
| 36.6.9 | Measuring the Performance of the Eye | 62 |
| 36.7 | Binocular Vision | 63 |
| 36.7.1 | Introduction | 63 |
| 36.7.2 | Convergence | 65 |
| 36.7.3 | Stereo Vision and Depth Discrimination | 67 |
| 36.8 | Eye Defects | 69 |
| 36.8.1 | Introduction | 69 |
| 36.8.2 | Myopia | 70 |
| 36.8.3 | Hyperopia | 70 |
| 36.8.4 | Astigmatism | 72 |
| 36.8.5 | Aniseikonia | 72 |
| 36.8.6 | Color Aberrations | 72 |
| 36.8.7 | Spreading and Aging Effects | 73 |
| 36.8.8 | Cataract | 75 |
| 36.9 | Correction of Eye Aberrations | 75 |
| 36.9.1 | Correcting Refraction by Spectacles | 75 |
| 36.9.2 | Binoculars with Corrected Oblique Astigmatism | 78 |
| 36.9.3 | More Complicated Spectacle Shapes | 82 |
| 36.9.4 | Contact Lenses | 83 |
| 36.9.5 | Intra Ocular Lenses | 85 |
| 36.9.6 | Corneal Surgery | 86 |
| 36.10 | Literature | 87 |
| 37 | Eyepieces | 89 |
| 37.1 | Introduction | 91 |
| 37.2 | Eyepiece Design Considerations | 92 |
| 37.2.1 | Eye Relief | 93 |
| 37.2.2 | Resolution of the Human Eye | 93 |
| 37.2.3 | Accommodation | 93 |
| 37.2.4 | Distortion | 94 |
| 37.2.5 | Field Curvature and Astigmatism | 95 |
| 37.2.6 | Pupil Size | 96 |
| 37.2.7 | Lateral Chromatic Aberration | 96 |
| 37.2.8 | Spherical Aberration of the Exit Pupil | 97 |
| 37.2.9 | Raytracing Eyepieces | 97 |
| 37.3 | Evolution of Eyepieces | 99 |
| 37.4 | Single-lens Eyepiece (Loupe) | 102 |
| 37.4.1 | Standard Magnification | 103 |
| 37.4.2 | Magnification with Distinct Vision | 103 |
| 37.4.3 | Magnification with Lens in Close Proximity to Object | 103 |
| 37.4.4 | Visby Lens | 104 |
| 37.5 | Two-lens Eyepieces | 105 |
| 37.5.1 | Huygenian Eyepiece | 105 |
| 37.5.2 | Ramsden Eyepiece | 107 |
| 37.6 | Solid Eyepieces | 109 |
| 37.6.1 | Steinheil Monocentric Eyepiece | 109 |
| 37.7 | Orthoscopic Eyepieces | 110 |
| 37.7.1 | Kellner Eyepiece | 110 |
| 37.7.2 | Abbe Orthoscopic Eyepiece | 111 |
| 37.7.3 | König Eyepiece | 112 |
| 37.7.4 | Bertele Eyepiece | 113 |
| 37.8 | Achromatic and Medium-field Eyepieces | 115 |
| 37.8.1 | Plössl Eyepiece | 115 |
| 37.8.2 | Zeiss Astroplan | 116 |
| 37.8.3 | Bertele Eyepiece | 117 |
| 37.9 | Wide-field Eyepieces | 118 |
| 37.9.1 | Von Hofe Eyepiece | 118 |
| 37.9.2 | Erfle Eyepiece | 119 |
| 37.9.3 | Diffractive Eyepiece | 120 |
| 37.9.4 | Zeiss Binocular Eyepiece | 122 |
| 37.9.5 | Scidmore Eyepiece | 123 |
| 37.9.6 | Wild Eyepiece | 124 |
| 37.9.7 | Bertele Eyepiece | 125 |
| 37.9.8 | Yanari Long Eye Relief Eyepiece | 126 |
| 37.9.9 | Köhler Eyepiece | 127 |
| 37.9.10 | Nagler 1 Eyepiece | 129 |
| 37.9.11 | Nagler 2 Eyepiece | 131 |
| 37.9.12 | Dilworth Eyepiece | 132 |
| 37.10 | Compensating Eyepieces | 133 |
| 37.10.1 | Pretoria Eyepiece | 133 |
| 37.11 | Zoom Eyepieces | 135 |
| 37.12 | Terrestrial Eyepiece | 136 |
| 37.13 | Exotic Eyepieces | 137 |
| 37.13.1 | Aspheric-Plastic Eyepiece | 137 |
| 37.14 | Microscope Eyepieces | 138 |
| 37.15 | Eyepiece Design Data | 140 |
| 37.16 | Literature | 153 |
| 38 | Elementary Systems | 155 |
| 38.1 | Introduction | 157 |
| 38.2 | Magnifier Lenses | 157 |
| 38.2.1 | Principle of a Magnifier Lens | 157 |
| 38.2.2 | Magnifier Designs | 159 |
| 38.2.3 | Biocular Magnifier | 162 |
| 38.3 | Data Disk and Pick-up Lenses | 165 |
| 38.3.1 | Introduction | 165 |
| 38.3.2 | Disk Objective Lenses | 170 |
| 38.4 | Plastic Optics | 174 |
| 38.4.1 | Introduction | 174 |
| 38.4.2 | Optical Properties of the Materials | 177 |
| 38.4.3 | Special Design Aspects | 179 |
| 38.5 | Objective Lenses for Focusing and Collimation | 183 |
| 38.5.1 | Introduction | 183 |
| 38.5.2 | Beam Collimation | 184 |
| 38.5.3 | Monochromatic Objective Lenses | 185 |
| 38.5.4 | Achromate | 188 |
| 38.5.5 | Improved Objective Lenses | 191 |
| 38.6 | Mangin Mirror | 196 |
| 38.6.1 | Principle | 196 |
| 38.6.2 | More Complicated Mangin Systems | 198 |
| 38.7 | Offner System | 201 |
| 38.8 | Dyson System | 204 |
| 38.9 | Retroreflecting Systems | 205 |
| 38.9.1 | Introduction | 205 |
| 38.9.2 | Sphere with Reflecting Rear Surface | 206 |
| 38.9.3 | Double Hemisphere with Reflecting Rear Surface | 209 |
| 38.9.4 | Concentric Shell Setup | 210 |
| 38.9.5 | Offner Setup as Retroreflector | 211 |
| 38.9.6 | Lens-Mirror System | 212 |
| 38.9.7 | Refractive Axicon Retroreflector | 215 |
| 38.9.8 | Corner Cube Reflector | 216 |
| 38.9.9 | Luneburg Gradient Lens | 218 |
| 38.10 | Telecentric Systems | 219 |
| 38.10.1 | Introduction | 219 |
| 38.10.2 | Design Aspects | 222 |
| 38.11 | Beam Delivery Systems | 228 |
| 38.11.1 | Introduction | 228 |
| 38.11.2 | Diameter Adaptation with Telescopes | 230 |
| 38.11.3 | Beam Transport over Large Distances | 232 |
| 38.11.4 | Transmission of Truncated Gaussian Beams | 233 |
| 38.11.5 | Diffraction Effects by Truncation | 239 |
| 38.11.6 | Gaussian Beams with Aberrations | 242 |
| 38.11.7 | Beam Cleanup | 246 |
| 38.12 | Literature | 250 |
| 39 | Photographic Lenses | 253 |
| 39.1 | Introduction | 256 |
| 39.1.1 | Overview | 256 |
| 39.1.2 | Performance Criteria | 262 |
| 39.1.3 | Sensor Types and Formats | 263 |
| 39.1.4 | Depth of Field | 265 |
| 39.1.5 | Applications | 267 |
| 39.2 | Singlets | 268 |
| 39.2.1 | Landscape Lens | 268 |
| 39.2.2 | Achromatic Landscape Lens | 271 |
| 39.3 | Petzval Lenses | 272 |
| 39.3.1 | Petzval Portrait Lens | 272 |
| 39.3.2 | Petzval Projection Lens | 276 |
| 39.3.3 | R-Biotar | 276 |
| 39.4 | Symmetrical Doublets | 277 |
| 39.4.1 | Introduction | 277 |
| 39.4.2 | Steinheil Periskop | 278 |
| 39.4.3 | Rapid Rectilinear or Aplanatic Lens | 278 |
| 39.4.4 | Dagor Lens | 280 |
| 39.4.5 | Orthostigmatic Lens | 283 |
| 39.5 | Quasi-symmetrical Doublets | 284 |
| 39.5.1 | Antiplanet | 284 |
| 39.5.2 | Angulon | 285 |
| 39.5.3 | Protar | 285 |
| 39.5.4 | Unar | 287 |
| 39.5.5 | Tessar | 287 |
| 39.6 | Triplet Lenses | 290 |
| 39.6.1 | Triplet Design | 290 |
| 39.6.2 | Cooke Triplet | 293 |
| 39.6.3 | Split Triplets | 295 |
| 39.6.4 | Inverse Triplet | 296 |
| 39.6.5 | Heliar | 297 |
| 39.6.6 | Pentac | 298 |
| 39.6.7 | Hektor Lens | 299 |
| 39.7 | Quadruplet Lenses | 299 |
| 39.7.1 | Introduction | 299 |
| 39.7.2 | Dogmar or Celor Lens | 299 |
| 39.7.3 | Plasmat | 301 |
| 39.7.4 | Biotar, Planar or Double Gauss Lenses | 303 |
| 39.7.5 | More Complicated Double Gauss Lenses | 307 |
| 39.8 | Quasi-symmetrical Wide-angle Systems | 309 |
| 39.8.1 | Introduction | 309 |
| 39.8.2 | Hypergon | 310 |
| 39.8.3 | Topogon | 313 |
| 39.8.4 | Hologon | 315 |
| 39.8.5 | Metrogon | 317 |
| 39.8.6 | Pleogon | 318 |
| 39.8.7 | Biogon | 319 |
| 39.8.8 | Super Angulon | 323 |
| 39.9 | Less Symmetrical Lenses | 324 |
| 39.9.1 | Ernostar | 324 |
| 39.9.2 | Sonnar | 326 |
| 39.10 | Wide-angle Retrofocus Lenses | 327 |
| 39.10.1 | The Retrofocus Principle | 327 |
| 39.10.2 | Retrofocus Lenses | 329 |
| 39.10.3 | Distagon | 332 |
| 39.10.4 | Flektogon | 333 |
| 39.10.5 | Vivitar | 335 |
| 39.10.6 | SLR Camera Lenses | 336 |
| 39.11 | Extremely Wide-angle or Fish-eye Lenses | 338 |
| 39.11.1 | Fish-eye Lenses | 338 |
| 39.11.2 | Pleon | 343 |
| 39.11.3 | Distortion of Fish-eye Lenses | 343 |
| 39.11.4 | Pupil Variation | 347 |
| 39.11.5 | Panoramic Lenses | 351 |
| 39.12 | Telephoto Lenses | 352 |
| 39.12.1 | Telephoto Principle | 352 |
| 39.12.2 | Telephoto Lenses | 354 |
| 39.13 | Special Systems | 358 |
| 39.13.1 | Catadioptric Photographic Lenses | 358 |
| 39.13.2 | Compact Camera Lenses | 362 |
| 39.13.3 | Modern Aspherical Plastic Lenses | 363 |
| 39.13.4 | Telecentric Lenses | 366 |
| 39.13.5 | Photographic Zoom Lenses | 368 |
| 39.13.6 | Camera Lenses in UV and IR | 371 |
| 39.13.7 | Accessories | 372 |
| 39.14 | Special Aspects of Camera Lenses | 373 |
| 39.14.1 | Vignetting | 373 |
| 39.14.2 | Stopping Down a Photographic Lens | 375 |
| 39.14.3 | Internal Focusing with Floating Elements | 379 |
| 39.14.4 | Stray Light and Ghost Images | 381 |
| 39.15 | Literature | 388 |
| 40 | Infrared Systems | 391 |
| 40.1 | Introduction | 392 |
| 40.2 | Special Aspects of Infrared Imaging | 392 |
| 40.2.1 | Spectral Bands | 392 |
| 40.2.2 | Infrared Radiation from the Object to the Image | 394 |
| 40.2.3 | Radiation and Emissivity | 397 |
| 40.2.4 | Atmospheric Transmittance | 400 |
| 40.2.5 | Detectors | 402 |
| 40.2.6 | Materials | 406 |
| 40.3 | Basic Infrared Imaging Systems | 411 |
| 40.3.1 | Afocal System and Imager | 411 |
| 40.3.2 | Afocal System and Reimager | 412 |
| 40.3.3 | Reimager | 413 |
| 40.3.4 | Objective with a Rear Exit Pupil | 414 |
| 40.3.5 | Objective for an Uncooled Detector | 414 |
| 40.4 | Special Characteristics of Infrared Systems | 415 |
| 40.4.1 | Diffractive Surfaces | 415 |
| 40.4.2 | Athermalization | 416 |
| 40.4.3 | Narcissus | 418 |
| 40.5 | Advanced Infrared Imaging Systems | 422 |
| 40.5.1 | Infrared Achromats and Objective Lenses | 422 |
| 40.5.2 | Afocal Telescopes | 429 |
| 40.5.3 | Afocal Zoomable Telescopes | 431 |
| 40.5.4 | Advanced Reimager | 433 |
| 40.5.5 | Multiple Waveband Achromats and Systems | 436 |
| 40.5.6 | Compound Systems | 437 |
| 40.6 | Literature | 441 |
| 41 | Zoom Systems | 445 |
| 41.1 | Introduction | 447 |
| 41.1.1 | Fundamental Considerations | 447 |
| 41.1.2 | Principle of Smallest Changes | 451 |
| 41.1.3 | Configurations of Zoom Systems | 454 |
| 41.1.4 | Mechanical and Optical Compensation | 457 |
| 41.1.5 | Development of a Zoom System | 459 |
| 41.2 | Mechanically Compensated Zoom Systems | 460 |
| 41.2.1 | Introduction | 460 |
| 41.2.2 | Finite Image Two-component Zoom System | 461 |
| 41.2.3 | Three-component Zoom System | 466 |
| 41.2.4 | Four-component Zoom System | 469 |
| 41.2.5 | Zoom System with Three Movable Components | 469 |
| 41.2.6 | Symmetrical Afocal Zoom System | 470 |
| 41.2.7 | General Three-component Afocal Zoom System | 475 |
| 41.2.8 | Zoom Systems with Fixed Pupil Location | 478 |
| 41.3 | Optically Compensated Zoom Systems | 482 |
| 41.3.1 | Introduction | 482 |
| 41.3.2 | Three-component System | 487 |
| 41.3.3 | Approximate Solution for a Three-component System | 488 |
| 41.3.4 | Solution of the Three-Component System According to Kingslake | 491 |
| 41.3.5 | Solution of a Three-component Afocal Zoom System | 493 |
| 41.3.6 | Symmetrical Afocal Five-component Zoom System | 495 |
| 41.4 | Correction of Zoom Systems | 498 |
| 41.4.1 | Introduction | 498 |
| 41.4.2 | Simple Example for Performance Variation | 500 |
| 41.4.3 | Seidel Aberrations | 503 |
| 41.4.4 | Color Aberrations | 505 |
| 41.4.5 | Stop Position | 506 |
| 41.5 | Example Systems | 508 |
| 41.5.1 | Mechanically Compensated Three-component Systems | 508 |
| 41.5.2 | Mechanically Compensated Four-component Systems | 511 |
| 41.5.3 | Systems With More Than Four Moving Groups | 516 |
| 41.5.4 | Optically Compensated Zoom Systems | 521 |
| 41.6 | Special Aspects | 525 |
| 41.6.1 | Gaussian Brackets | 525 |
| 41.6.2 | Description of Zoom Systems with Differential Equations | 526 |
| 41.6.3 | Solid State Zoom Systems | 528 |
| 41.6.4 | Mirror Zoom Systems | 530 |
| 41.6.5 | Focusing of Camera Zoom Systems | 532 |
| 41.6.6 | Adjustment of a Zoom System | 535 |
| 41.7 | Literature | 538 |
| 42 | Microscope Optics | 541 |
| 42.1 | Introduction | 543 |
| 42.1.1 | Overview | 543 |
| 42.1.2 | Combined Color Correction | 548 |
| 42.1.3 | Complete System of the Microscope | 551 |
| 42.2 | Objective Lenses | 555 |
| 42.2.1 | Introduction | 555 |
| 42.2.2 | Quality Classes | 559 |
| 42.2.3 | Design of High-performance Objective Lenses | 566 |
| 42.2.4 | Achromate Lens | 568 |
| 42.2.5 | Lister Objective | 569 |
| 42.2.6 | Amici Objective | 573 |
| 42.2.7 | High Aperture Lenses | 575 |
| 42.2.8 | Flat Field Lenses | 587 |
| 42.2.9 | Correcting Objectives | 595 |
| 42.2.10 | Long-distance Objective Lenses | 599 |
| 42.2.11 | Catadioptric Objectives | 605 |
| 42.2.12 | Objectives for Fluorescence Microscopy | 622 |
| 42.2.13 | UV Lenses | 623 |
| 42.3 | Microscopic Imaging System | 629 |
| 42.3.1 | Defocused Use of High NA Lenses | 629 |
| 42.3.2 | Immersion and Cover Glass | 636 |
| 42.3.3 | Index Mismatch in the Object Space | 638 |
| 42.3.4 | Objective Pupil and Telecentricity | 644 |
| 42.3.5 | Tube Optic | 650 |
| 42.3.6 | Conoscopic Observation | 655 |
| 42.4 | Illumination Optic | 656 |
| 42.4.1 | Introduction | 656 |
| 42.4.2 | Köhler Illumination | 661 |
| 42.4.3 | Collector Optic | 662 |
| 42.4.4 | Condenser Optics for Bright-field Illumination | 665 |
| 42.4.5 | Condenser Optic for Dark-field Illumination | 668 |
| 42.4.6 | TIRF Illumination | 671 |
| 42.5 | Stereo Microscope | 674 |
| 42.5.1 | Introduction | 674 |
| 42.5.2 | Telescope Setup | 676 |
| 42.5.3 | Greenough Setup | 679 |
| 42.5.4 | Magnification-changing Systems | 680 |
| 42.5.5 | Special Combination Setup | 681 |
| 42.6 | Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopes | 682 |
| 42.6.1 | Introduction | 682 |
| 42.6.2 | Scan Lens | 685 |
| 42.6.3 | Pinhole Optic | 688 |
| 42.6.4 | Nipkow Microscope | 689 |
| 42.6.5 | Illumination System of a Confocal Microscope | 691 |
| 42.7 | Special Aspects | 691 |
| 42.7.1 | Accessories | 691 |
| 42.7.2 | Autofluorescence | 692 |
| 42.7.3 | Transmission and Throughput | 694 |
| 42.7.4 | Adjustment of Microscope Lenses | 699 |
| 42.7.5 | Focusing at Low Fresnel Numbers | 701 |
| 42.7.6 | Solid Immersion Lenses | 709 |
| 42.7.7 | Thermal Effects | 714 |
| 42.8 | Literature | 718 |
| 43 | Telescopes | 723 |
| 43.1 | Introduction | 726 |
| 43.2 | Refracting Telescopes | 727 |
| 43.2.1 | Achromatic Refractor Telescopes | 727 |
| 43.2.2 | Apochromatic Refractor Telescopes | 730 |
| 43.2.3 | Apochromatic Telescopes Without Anomalous Dispersion Glasses | 742 |
| 43.3 | Reflecting Telescopes | 744 |
| 43.4 | Single-mirror Reflecting Telescopes | 745 |
| 43.4.1 | Spherical Mirror | 745 |
| 43.4.2 | Parabolic Mirror (Newton Telescope) | 745 |
| 43.5 | Two-mirror Reflecting Telescopes | 746 |
| 43.5.1 | Cassegrain Telescope | 746 |
| 43.5.2 | Ritchey-Chretien Telescope | 750 |
| 43.5.3 | Dall-Kirkham Telescope | 750 |
| 43.5.4 | Pressmann-Camichel Telescope | 751 |
| 43.5.5 | Gregorian Telescope | 751 |
| 43.5.6 | Schwarzschild Aplanatic Telescopes | 753 |
| 43.5.7 | Couder Anastigmat | 756 |
| 43.5.8 | Loveday Telescope | 756 |
| 43.6 | Three-mirror Reflection Telescopes | 758 |
| 43.6.1 | Paul-Baker Telescope | 758 |
| 43.6.2 | Willstrop Mersenne-Schmidt Telescope | 760 |
| 43.6.3 | Korsch Three-mirror, Single-axis Telescope | 762 |
| 43.6.4 | Robb Three-mirror Telescope | 763 |
| 43.6.5 | Korsch Three-mirror Four-reflection Telescope | 764 |
| 43.7 | Other Three- and Four-mirror Reflecting Telescopes | 765 |
| 43.8 | Two-mirror Schiefspiegler (Oblique Reflector) Telescopes | 766 |
| 43.8.1 | Kutter Schiefspiegler | 767 |
| 43.8.2 | Herrig Schiefspiegler | 769 |
| 43.8.3 | Yolo Telescope | 771 |
| 43.9 | Three-mirror Schiefspiegler Telescopes | 772 |
| 43.9.1 | Kutter and Buchroeder Tri-Schiefspiegler | 772 |
| 43.9.2 | Stevick-Paul Schiefspiegler | 773 |
| 43.9.3 | Brunn Schiefspiegler | 775 |
| 43.9.4 | Shafer Schiefspiegler | 776 |
| 43.9.5 | Solano Schiefspiegler | 777 |
| 43.9.6 | General Solutions for Three-mirror Schiefspiegler Telescopes | 777 |
| 43.10 | Four-mirror Schiefspiegler | 781 |
| 43.10.1 | Shafer-Mersenne Telescope | 781 |
| 43.10.2 | Shafer Four- and Five-mirror Unobscured Telescopes | 782 |
| 43.10.3 | Afocal Four-mirror Telescope | 783 |
| 43.10.4 | General Solutions for Four-mirror Schiefspiegler Telescopes | 784 |
| 43.11 | Three-mirror Off-axis Anastigmats (TMA) | 786 |
| 43.11.1 | Re-imaging TMA | 787 |
| 43.11.2 | Non-re-imaging TMA | 788 |
| 43.11.3 | Walrus | 789 |
| 43.12 | Two-axis Telescopes | 790 |
| 43.12.1 | Korsch Three-mirror, Two-axis Telescope | 790 |
| 43.12.2 | Two-axis Telescopes Derived from the Mersenne and Schmidt Principle | 791 |
| 43.13 | Catadioptric Telescopes | 793 |
| 43.13.1 | Mangin Telescope | 793 |
| 43.13.2 | Schmidt Telescope | 794 |
| 43.13.3 | Wright-Väisälä Telescope | 797 |
| 43.13.4 | Baker-Super-Schmidt Telescope | 797 |
| 43.13.5 | Baker-Nunn Camera | 798 |
| 43.13.6 | Wynne Telescope | 799 |
| 43.13.7 | Schmidt-Cassegrain Telescope | 799 |
| 43.13.8 | Schmidt-Gregorian Telescope | 801 |
| 43.13.9 | Sigler Telescope | 801 |
| 43.13.10 | Houghton Telescope | 802 |
| 43.13.11 | Buchroeder-Houghton Telescope | 803 |
| 43.13.12 | Houghton-Cassegrain Telescope | 804 |
| 43.13.13 | Lurie-Houghton Telescope | 805 |
| 43.13.14 | Bouwers-Maksutov Telescope | 806 |
| 43.14 | Catadioptric Maksutov-Cassegrain Telescopes | 809 |
| 43.14.1 | Maksutov-Gregory Telescope | 809 |
| 43.14.2 | Maksutov-Rumak Telescope | 810 |
| 43.14.3 | Aspherical Maksutov Telescope | 811 |
| 43.14.4 | Bouwers-Cassegrain with Weak Corrector Lens | 811 |
| 43.14.5 | Schmidt-Bouwers Telescope | 813 |
| 43.14.6 | Compact Maksutov Telescope | 813 |
| 43.14.7 | Klevtsov | 814 |
| 43.14.8 | Other Forms of Catadioptric Telescopes | 816 |
| 43.14.9 | Schupmann Medial Telescope | 817 |
| 43.14.10 | Schupmann Brachymedial | 821 |
| 43.15 | Telescopes with Field Correctors | 821 |
| 43.15.1 | Field-flattening Lens | 822 |
| 43.15.2 | Correctors for a Parabolic Mirror (Newton Telescope) | 823 |
| 43.15.3 | Correctors for a Spherical Mirror | 825 |
| 43.15.4 | Corrector for Cassegrain and RC Telescopes | 826 |
| 43.15.5 | Focal Reducers | 827 |
| 43.15.6 | Focal Extenders | 828 |
| 43.16 | The Effects of Aperture Obscuration | 829 |
| 43.16.1 | Central Obstruction | 830 |
| 43.16.2 | Spider Obstruction | 834 |
| 43.17 | Telescope Design Prescriptions | 835 |
| 43.18 | Literature | 861 |
| 44 | Lithographic Projection Lenses | 865 |
| 44.1 | Introduction | 866 |
| 44.2 | Physical Optics Aspects | 868 |
| 44.2.1 | Projection Techniques | 868 |
| 44.2.2 | Resolution | 870 |
| 44.2.3 | Information Transfer | 873 |
| 44.2.4 | Illumination and Coherence | 874 |
| 44.2.5 | Materials | 878 |
| 44.2.6 | Polarization | 881 |
| 44.3 | Performance of Lithographic Lenses | 883 |
| 44.3.1 | Requirements | 883 |
| 44.3.2 | Representations of Performance | 884 |
| 44.3.3 | Chromatic Aberrations | 893 |
| 44.3.4 | Petzval Curvature | 897 |
| 44.3.5 | Telecentricity | 898 |
| 44.4 | Evolution of Lithographic Lens Systems | 900 |
| 44.4.1 | Introduction | 900 |
| 44.4.2 | Change of Wavelength | 904 |
| 44.4.3 | The Size Problem | 905 |
| 44.4.4 | Aspherical Systems | 906 |
| 44.4.5 | Immersion Systems | 909 |
| 44.4.6 | Catadioptric Systems | 909 |
| 44.4.7 | Mirror Systems | 913 |
| 44.5 | Examples of Lithographic Systems | 914 |
| 44.5.1 | Introduction | 914 |
| 44.5.2 | Early Lithographic Lenses | 916 |
| 44.5.3 | Refractive Projection Lenses | 917 |
| 44.5.4 | Multi-axis Catadioptric Systems with Cubes | 925 |
| 44.5.5 | Multi-axis Catadioptric Systems with Mirrors | 926 |
| 44.5.6 | EUV Mirror Systems | 930 |
| 44.6 | Literature | 938 |
| 45 | Miscellaneous System Types | 941 |
| 45.1 | Relay Systems | 943 |
| 45.1.1 | Introduction | 943 |
| 45.1.2 | Basic Systems | 944 |
| 45.1.3 | System with Variable Magnification | 950 |
| 45.1.4 | More Complicated Relay Systems | 951 |
| 45.1.5 | The 4f system | 953 |
| 45.1.6 | Combination of Relay Systems | 956 |
| 45.1.7 | Riflescope | 957 |
| 45.1.8 | Periscope | 958 |
| 45.1.9 | Endoscope | 961 |
| 45.2 | Scan Systems | 965 |
| 45.2.1 | Introduction | 965 |
| 45.2.2 | Scanning Components | 967 |
| 45.2.3 | F- Scan Lenses | 974 |
| 45.2.4 | Scanner Resolution | 976 |
| 45.2.5 | Scan Lens Design | 977 |
| 45.2.6 | Scan Lens Examples | 979 |
| 45.3 | Projection Systems | 984 |
| 45.3.1 | Introduction | 984 |
| 45.3.2 | Film Projection | 985 |
| 45.3.3 | Digital Light Projection | 988 |
| 45.3.4 | Color Management | 991 |
| 45.3.5 | Front Projection Lenses | 995 |
| 45.3.6 | DMD Light Projection Lenses | 997 |
| 45.3.7 | Rear Projection TV Systems | 1001 |
| 45.3.8 | HUD Projection Systems | 1002 |
| 45.3.9 | HMD Projection Systems | 1004 |
| 45.3.10 | Retinal Scanner Systems | 1011 |
| 45.4 | Interferometer Lenses | 1012 |
| 45.4.1 | Collimator Lenses | 1012 |
| 45.4.2 | Refractive Null Corrector Lenses | 1016 |
| 45.4.3 | Diffractive Null Corrector Systems | 1025 |
| 45.5 | Autofocus Systems | 1028 |
| 45.5.1 | Introduction | 1028 |
| 45.5.2 | Astigmatic Sensor | 1031 |
| 45.5.3 | Confocal Sensor | 1037 |
| 45.5.4 | Chromatic Confocal Sensor | 1039 |
| 45.5.5 | Triangulation | 1041 |
| 45.6 | Spectroscopic Systems | 1043 |
| 45.6.1 | Introduction | 1043 |
| 45.6.2 | Prism Spectrometer | 1044 |
| 45.6.3 | Grating Spectrometer | 1045 |
| 45.6.4 | Spectrometer with Rowland Grating | 1046 |
| 45.6.5 | Czerny-Turner Setup | 1049 |
| 45.6.6 | Fery Prism Systems | 1051 |
| 45.7 | Literature | 1052 |
| | Index | 1057 |