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  Contents  
 
  Volume 1  
List of Contributors XXVII
1 Characteristics of Low-Temperature Plasmas Under Nonthermal Conditions – A Short Summary
Alfred Rutscher † 		1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Definition 1
1.1.2 Types of Plasmas 2
1.2 Starting Point for Modeling the Plasma State 2
1.2.1 Single-Particle Trajectories 2
1.2.2 Kinetic and Statistical Theory 2
1.2.3 Hydrodynamic Approximation 3
1.3 The Role of Charge Carriers 3
1.4 Facts and Formulas 4
1.4.1 Electron Energy Distribution Functions (EEDF) 4
1.4.2 Kinetic Temperature of Electrons 4
1.4.3 Coefficients for Particle and Energy Transport 5
1.4.4 Generalized Boltzmann Equilibrium 6
1.4.5 Ambipolar Diffusion 7
1.4.6 Condition of Quasineutrality 9
1.4.7 Debye Screening Length 9
1.4.8 Degree of Ionization 11
1.4.9 Electrical Conductivity 12
1.4.10 Plasma Frequency 14
2 Electron Kinetics in Weakly Ionized Plasmas
Detlef Loffhagen, Florian Sigeneger, and Rolf Winkler 		15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.1.1 The Active Role of Electrons in the Plasma 15
2.1.2 Action of Electric Fields and Collision Processes 16
2.2 Kinetic Treatment of the Electrons 18
2.2.1 Velocity Distribution and Macroscopic Properties 18
2.2.2 Kinetic Equation of the Electrons 19
2.2.3 Treatment of the Kinetic Equation 20
2.2.4 Macroscopic Properties of the Electrons 21
2.3 Kinetics in Time-and Space-Independent Plasmas 23
2.3.1 Basic Equations and Consistent Macroscopic Balances 23
2.3.2 Illustration of Distribution Functions and Macroscopic Quantities 25
2.4 Electron Kinetics in Time-Dependent Plasmas 28
2.4.1 Basic Equations for the Distribution Components 28
2.4.2 Balance Equations and Dissipation Frequencies 29
2.4.3 Temporal Relaxation of the Electrons 31
2.5 Electron Kinetics in Space-Dependent Plasmas 32
2.5.1 Basic Equations and Consistent Balances 33
2.5.2 Spatial Relaxation of the Electrons 34
2.6 Electron Kinetics in Time-and Space-Dependent Plasmas 37
2.6.1 Basic Equations and Macroscopic Balances 38
2.6.2 Spatiotemporal Relaxation of the Electrons 40
2.7 Concluding Remarks 43
2.7 References 44
3 Elementary Collision Processes in Plasmas
Kurt Becker and Chun C. Lin 		47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Electron-Impact-Induced Collision Processes with Atoms 49
3.2.1 Electron Excitation of Atoms: Overview 49
3.2.2 Electron Excitation Out of Metastable Levels 50
3.2.2.1 Argon: a Case Study 51
3.2.2.2 Other Rare Gases 56
3.2.3 Electron-Impact Ionization 58
3.3 Electron-Impact-Induced Collision Processes with Molecules 61
3.4 Concluding Remarks 67
3.4 References 68
4 Elementary Processes of Plasma–Surface Interactions
Rainer Hippler 		71
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Theoretical Considerations 71
4.2.1 Binary Collision Model 72
4.2.1.1 Scattering Angle and Energy Transfer 72
4.2.1.2 Stopping Power 74
4.2.1.3 Sputtering Yield 77
4.2.1.4 Computer Simulations Based on the Binary Collision Model 78
4.2.2 Molecular Dynamics Model 79
4.2.3 Scattering Potentials 80
4.2.3.1 Repulsive Potentials 80
4.2.3.2 Attractive Potentials 81
4.3 Scattering of Ions at Surfaces 84
4.3.1 Implantation of Ions 84
4.3.2 Backscattering of Ions 84
4.4 Physical Sputtering 86
4.4.1 Projectile Energy Dependence 86
4.4.2 Energy Distribution of Sputtered Particles 87
4.4.3 Sputtering of Clusters 89
4.4.4 Potential Sputtering Employing Highly Charged Ions 89
4.5 Electron Emission 91
4.5.1 Emission of Electrons by Electron Impact 92
4.5.1.1 Reflection of Electrons from Surfaces 93
4.5.1.2 Emission of Secondary Electrons by Electron Impact 94
4.5.2 Emission of Electrons by Ion Impact 94
4.5.3 Emission of Electrons by Cluster Impact 97
4.6 Chemical Effects 98
4.6.1 Chemical Sputtering and Plasma Etching 98
4.6 References 100
5 Plasma–Surface Interaction
Holger Kersten and Achim von Keudell 		103
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 Elementary Mechanisms in Low-Temperature Plasma Processing 104
5.2.1 Adsorption 104
5.2.1.1 Chemisorption versus Physisorption 104
5.2.1.2 Sticking Coefficient and Surface Loss Probabilities 105
5.2.1.3 Surface Coverage 106
5.2.1.4 Surface Diffusion 108
5.2.1.5 Energy Accommodation 109
5.2.2 Surface Reactions 110
5.2.3 Quantification of Surface Reactions 112
5.2.3.1 Estimation of Sticking Coefficients 112
5.2.3.2 Measurement of Sticking Coefficients 112
5.2.4 Ion Bombardment in Plasma Processing 114
5.3 Modeling of Etching and Deposition Processes 116
5.3.1 Particle Balance 117
5.3.2 Energy Balance 118
5.4 Examples 120
5.4.1 Example: Deposition of a-Si:H Films 120
5.4.2 Example: Temperature Dependence of Plasma Etching 122
5.4.3 Example: Energy Balance During Thin Film Deposition 124
5.4 References 126
6 Fundamentals of Dusty Plasmas
André Melzer and John Goree 		129
6.1 Introduction 129
6.2 Particle Charging 130
6.2.1 Orbital-Motion Limited Theory 130
6.2.2 Reduction of the Charge due to High Particle Density 133
6.2.3 Electron Emission 134
6.2.3.1 Secondary Electron Emission 135
6.2.3.2 Photoelectric Emission 136
6.2.4 Ion Trapping 136
6.2.5 Charge Fluctuations 137
6.3 Forces on Particles 137
6.3.1 Electric Field Force 137
6.3.2 Gravity 138
6.3.3 Ion Drag Force 138
6.3.4 Thermophoresis 140
6.3.5 Neutral Drag Force 140
6.3.6 Radiation Pressure Forces 141
6.3.7 Particle Interaction Potentials 141
6.3.7.1 Particles in Isotropic Plasmas 141
6.3.7.2 Particles in the Plasma Sheath 142
6.4 Experimental Methods 143
6.4.1 Particle Confinement and Levitation 143
6.4.1.1 RF Discharges 143
6.4.1.2 DC Discharges 145
6.4.1.3 Discharges with Nanoparticles 146
6.4.2 Charge Measurement Methods 147
6.4.2.1 The Potential Well 147
6.4.2.2 Linear Resonances 147
6.4.2.3 Nonlinear Oscillations 148
6.4.3 Particle Imaging and Tracking 149
6.5 Strongly Coupled Systems and Plasma Crystallization 151
6.5.1 Phase Diagram of Charged-Particle Systems 152
6.5.2 Correlation Functions 153
6.5.3 Phase Transitions 154
6.5.4 Comparison to Colloids 154
6.6 Waves in Dusty Plasmas 157
6.6.1 Waves in Weakly Coupled Plasmas: Dust-Acoustic Wave (DAW) 157
6.6.2 Waves in Strongly Coupled Dusty Plasmas: Dust Lattice Wave 159
6.6.2.1 Dispersion Relations of Longitudinal and Shear Modes in 2D
6.6.2.2 Measurements of Compressional and Shear Dust Lattice Waves 160
6.6.2.3 Mach Cones 163
6.6.2.4 Transverse Dust Lattice Waves 164
6.6.2.5 Natural Phonons 164
6.6.3 Finite Clusters and Normal Modes 166
6.6.3.1 2D Clusters 166
6.6.3.2 3D Clusters: Yukawa (Coulomb) Balls 169
6.7 Concluding Remarks 169
6.7 References 170
7 Langmuir Probe Diagnostics of Low-Temperature Plasmas
Sigismund Pfau and Milan Tichý 		175
7.1 Introduction 175
7.1.1 Probe Shapes and Probe Characteristics 175
7.1.2 The Working Regimes of the Langmuir Probe 178
7.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Probe Diagnostics 179
7.2 The Langmuir Single-Probe Method 180
7.2.1 Theoretical Foundations of the Langmuir Probe Method 180
7.2.2 Probe Characteristics – Example of the Spherical Probe 181
7.2.2.1 Probe Current at qv Up 0 181
7.2.2.2 Probe Current at qv Up 0 182
7.3 General Theories of the Current to a Langmuir Probe 183
7.3.1 Starting System of Equations 183
7.3.2 The Cold Ion Model by Allen, Boyd, and Reynolds (Ti/Te =0) 184
7.4 The Druyvesteyn Method for Estimation of the Electron Energy Distribution Function (EEDF) 186
7.5 Probe Diagnostics of Anisotropic Plasmas 190
7.6 Probe Diagnostics Under Noncollision-Free Conditions 192
7.7 Langmuir Probe in a Magnetized Plasma 197
7.8 Space and Time-Resolved Langmuir Probe Method 199
7.8.1 Space-Resolved Langmuir Probe Measurements 199
7.8.2 Time-Resolved Langmuir Probe Measurements 200
7.8.2.1 Time-Resolved Probe Measurements in Periodically Changing Plasmas at < pi 202
7.8.2.2 Probe Measurements of Time-Averaged Plasma Parameters at pi < << pe 202
7.8.2.3 Time-Resolved Probe Measurements in Single-Shot Experiments 204
7.9 Probe Diagnostic of Chemically Active Plasmas 204
7.10 Double-Probe Technique 206
7.10 References 208
8 Emission and absorption spectroscopy
Jürgen Röpcke, Paul B. Davies, Frank Hempel, and Boris P. Lavrov 		215
8.1 Introduction 215
8.2 Instrumental Techniques 216
8.3 Emission Spectroscopy 219
8.3.1 General Considerations 219
8.3.2 Actinometry 220
8.4 Absorption Spectroscopy 222
8.4.1 General Considerations 222
8.4.2 Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy 224
8.5 Results and Applications: Physical Properties of Plasmas 227
8.5.1 Temperatures and Distribution Functions 228
8.5.1.1 Translational Temperature 228
8.5.1.2 Rotational Temperature 229
8.5.1.3 Vibrational Temperature 232
8.5.2 Degree of Dissociation 233
8.5.3 Electric Field, Electron Temperature, Density and Distribution Function 235
8.5.4 Time-Resolved Spectroscopy 236
8.6 Conclusions 237
8.6 References 238
9 Mass Spectrometric Diagnostics
Martin Schmidt, Rüdiger Foest, and Ralf Basner 		243
9.1 Introduction 243
9.2 Instrumentation 245
9.2.1 Ion Source 245
9.2.2 Mass Analyzer 247
9.2.3 Ion Energy Analyzer 249
9.2.4 Ion Detector 250
9.3 Coupling of the Mass Spectrometer with the Plasma System 250
9.3.1 Mechanical Coupling 250
9.3.2 Electrical Coupling 255
9.4 Neutral Gas Mass Spectrometry 256
9.5 Ion Mass Spectrometry 261
9.6 Mass Spectrometry for the Determination of Elementary Data for Plasma Physics 266
9.7 Conclusions 267
9.7 References 267
10 Cross-Correlation Emission Spectroscopy
Hans-Erich Wagner, Kirill Vadimovich Kozlov, and Ronny Brandenburg 		271
10.1 Introduction 271
10.2 The Technique of Cross-Correlation Spectroscopy 272
10.3 Investigation of Filamentary and Diffuse Barrier Discharges 275
10.3.1 Discharge Operation 275
10.3.2 Filamentary Barrier Discharges in Air 277
10.3.3 Systematic Variation of N2/O2 Gas Mixtures 281
10.3.4 Axial and Radial Development of Single Microdischarges 282
10.3.5 Determination of Electric Field Strength and Relative Electron Density in the Microdischarge Channel in Air 284
10.3.5.1 Development of E/n and ne along the MD z-axis 284
10.3.5.2 Axial and Radial Development of Electric Field Strength 286
10.3.6 Determination of Effective Lifetime Constants of States 289
10.3.7 Transition Between the Filamentary and Diffuse Barrier Discharges in N2/O2 Gas Mixtures 290
10.3.8 Filamentary and Diffuse Barrier Discharges in Noble Gas Containing Atmospheres 292
10.3.8.1 Diffuse Barrier Discharges in Gas Mixtures of Nitrogen with Helium, Neon, and Argon 293
10.3.8.2 Diffuse and Filamentary Barrier Discharges in Ne/O2 Gas Mixtures 295
10.3.8.3 Barrier Discharges in Pure Argon 296
10.4 Investigation of Corona Discharges 298
10.4.1 Positive Corona Discharges 298
10.4.2 Negative Corona Discharges 299
10.5 Summary 301
10.5 References 302
11 Ellipsometric Analysis of Plasma-Treated Surfaces
Wolfgang Fukarek 		307
11.1 Introduction 307
11.2 Comparison with Other Techniques 308
11.3 Experimental Technique 309
11.3.1 Instrumentation 309
11.3.2 Data Analysis 310
11.4 Examples 312
11.4.1 In situ Single Wavelength Ellipsometry Examples 312
11.4.1.1 Direct Current (DC) Magnetron Sputter Deposition of Indium-Tin-Oxide (ITO) Films 313
11.4.1.2 Temperature Dependence of a-C:H Film Growth 313
11.4.1.3 The Role of Low-Energy Hydrogen Ions in Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) of Hydrocarbon Films 315
11.4.2 In situ Spectroscopic Ellipsometry Examples 317
11.4.2.1 Surface Temperature and Oxide Thickness During Argon Sputter Cleaning 317
11.4.2.2 Analysis of Unstable Plasma Processes 319
11.4.2.3 Monitoring of Ion-Beam-Assisted-Deposition Processes 322
11.4.3 Ex situ Spectroscopic Ellipsometry Examples 323
11.4.3.1 In-Plane Anisotropic Turbostratic Boron Nitride Films 324
11.4.3.2 Reactive Cathodic Arc Deposition of Aluminum Oxide Films 325
11.5 Limitations and Remaining Issues 326
11.5 References 327
12 Characterization of Thin Solid Films
Harm Wulff and Hartmut Steffen 		329
12.1 Introduction 329
12.2 X-Ray Methods for Thin Film Analysis 330
12.2.1 Grazing Incidence X-Ray Diffractometry (GIXD) 330
12.2.2 X-Ray Reflectometry (XR) 333
12.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 335
12.4 Examples 336
12.4.1 Phase Analysis of Plasma-Deposited TiNx Films 336
12.4.2 Characterization of Defect Structures by X-Ray Investigations 337
12.4.2.1 Imperfections of the First Type 338
12.4.2.2 Imperfections of the Second Type 338
12.4.3 Calculation of Depth Profiles in Plasma-Deposited Ti/TiSi Films 341
12.4.4 Structural Studies of Thin ITO Films 343
12.4.5 Investigation of Plasma-Deposited ITO Films 347
12.4.5.1 Influence of Oxygen Flow During Film Deposition 348
12.4.5.2 Influence of the Negative Substrate Voltage 350
12.4.5.3 Postdeposition Annealing 351
12.4.6 In situ Studies of Diffusion and Crystal Growth in Plasma-Deposited Thin ITO Films 351
12.4.6.1 Determination of Kinetic Parameters 352
12.4.6.2 Diffusion 353
12.4.6.3 Crystallization 355
12.4.7 Formation of Aluminum Oxide Using a Microwave-Induced Plasma 356
12.5 Characterization of Ag Clusters 359
12.6 Conclusions 361
12.6 References 361
13 Plasma Sources
Martin Schmidt and Hans Conrads 		363
13.1 Introduction 363
13.2 Properties of Nonthermal Plasmas 365
13.3 Plasma Generation by Electric Fields 368
13.3.1 Direct Current (dc) Discharges 368
13.3.2 Pulsed Direct Current (dc) Discharges 371
13.3.3 Radiofrequency (rf) Discharges 372
13.3.3.1 Capacitively Coupled Radiofrequency Discharges 372
13.3.3.2 Inductively Coupled Radiofrequency Discharges 374
13.3.4 Microwave Discharges 376
13.4 Plasma Generation by Beams 379
13.5 Conclusions 379
13.5 References 381
14 Reactive Nonthermal Plasmas
Hans-Erich Wagner 		385
14.1 Introduction 385
14.2 Chemical Quasiequilibria 386
14.2.1 The Concept 386
14.2.2 Chemical Quasiequilibria and the Kinetic Background 388
14.2.3 Experimental Verification 391
14.3 Plasma Chemical Similarity 394
14.3.1 Similarity Principles in the Chemistry of Nonthermal Plasmas 394
14.3.2 Application to the Flow Reactor 396
14.3.3 Comparison with Experimental Results 398
14.4 The Method of Generalized Macroscopic kinetics 401
14.4.1 History and Concept 401
14.4.2 The Particle Balance Equations 402
14.4.3 Demonstration Examples 403
14.4.4 Macroscopic Modeling of Experimental Results 405
14.5 Summary 407
14.5 References 408
 Volume 2  
15 Atmospheric Pressure Glow Discharges
Alan Garscadden 		411
15.1 Introduction 411
15.2 Characteristics of the Atmospheric Pressure Glow Discharge 412
15.3 Near Cathode Phenomena at Atmospheric Pressure 418
15.4 Boundary Controlled Discharges 421
15.5 Glow-to-Arc Stabilization Approaches 423
15.6 RF Excited Glow Discharges 427
15.7 Microwave Excited Atmospheric Glow Discharges 429
15.8 Atmospheric Discharges Using Gas–Liquid Interface 429
15.9 Miniature Boundary Controlled Discharges 431
15.10 Applications 431
15.11 Summary and Recommendations for Future Research 433
15.11 References 435
16 High-Pressure Plasmas: Dielectric-Barrier and Corona Discharges
Ulrich Kogelschatz and Jürgen Salge 		439
16.1 Introduction 439
16.2 Dielectric-Barrier Discharges 439
16.2.1 Filamentary Discharges 440
16.2.1.1 Electrode Configurations and Discharge Evolution 440
16.2.1.2 Microdischarge Properties 443
16.2.1.3 Ionization, Dissociation, and Ensuing Plasma Chemistry 443
16.2.1.4 Discharge Control 445
16.2.1.5 Numerical Modeling 446
16.2.2 Homogeneous Discharges 447
16.2.3 Applications 448
16.2.3.1 Surface Treatment and Modification, Coating 448
16.2.3.2 Ozone Generation 450
16.2.3.3 High-Power CO2 Lasers 452
16.2.3.4 Excimer Lamps 453
16.2.3.5 Plasma Display Panels 454
16.2.3.6 Pollution Control 455
16.2.3.7 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation 455
16.3 Corona Discharges 456
16.3.1 Direct Current (dc) Discharges 456
16.3.1.1 Electrode Configurations, Properties, and Discharge Evolution 456
16.3.1.2 Current–Voltage Relations and Power Consumption 456
16.3.1.3 Charging and Transport of Particles and Droplets 457
16.3.2 Pulsed Corona Discharges 457
16.3.3 Applications 458
16.3.3.1 Electrostatic Precipitators 458
16.3.3.2 Pollution Control 459
16.3 References 460
17 High-Pressure Microdischarges
Kurt H. Becker and Karl H. Schoenbach 		463
17.1 Introduction 463
17.2 History of Microdischarges 463
17.2.1 The Microhollow Cathode Discharge (MHCD) 463
17.2.2 The Capillary Plasma Electrode Discharge 465
17.2.3 Microplasmas for Chemical Analysis 466
17.2.4 Other Microdischarges 466
17.2.5 The Cathode Boundary Layer Discharge 468
17.3 Materials and Fabrication Techniques 469
17.4 Diagnostics of Microplasma and Microplasma Properties 471
17.4.1 Modes of Microplasma Operation 471
17.4.2 Electron Temperature and Electron Energy Distribution 473
17.4.3 Electron Density 473
17.4.4 Gas Temperature 474
17.4.5 Microplasma Modeling 474
17.5 Applications of Microdischarges 475
17.5.1 Microplasmas for Environmental Applications 475
17.5.1.1 Destruction of Volatile Organic Compounds 476
17.5.1.2 Detection of Trace Contaminants 478
17.5.2 Biological Applications of Microplasmas 478
17.5.3 Microdischarges as UV Radiation Sources 480
17.5.4 Microdischarges as Plasma Reactors 482
17.5.5 Microdischarges as Plasma Cathodes 483
17.5.6 Microplasmas for Gas and Surface Analysis 484
17.5.6.1 Gas Analysis 484
17.5.6.2 Surface Treatment 486
17.6 Summary and Outlook 487
17.6 References 488
18 Materials Applications of High-Pressure Microplasmas
R. Mohan Sankaran and Konstantinos P. Giapis 		495
18.1 Introduction 495
18.2 Microdischarge Setup 495
18.3 Properties of Microplasma Sources 497
18.3.1 Current–Voltage Characteristics 497
18.3.2 Optical Emission Spectroscopy 500
18.4 Nonlithographic Etching of Silicon Substrates 501
18.4.1 Background 501
18.4.2 Pattern Filling: Design of a Stencil Mask 503
18.4.3 Etching Single Holes in Silicon 504
18.4.4 Etching Patterns 508
18.5 Thin Film Deposition 508
18.5.1 Background 508
18.5.2 Polycrystalline Diamond Films 510
18.5.3 Materials Characterization of Films 512
18.6 Continuous Flow Microreactor Synthesis of Nanoparticles 514
18.6.1 Background 514
18.6.2 Aerosol Synthesis and Characterization 515
18.7 Particle Charging 517
18.7.1 Materials Characterization of Silicon Nanoparticles 518
18.7.2 Photoluminescence Spectroscopy 520
18.7 References 522
19 Transient Plasma Ignition
Charles Cathey and Martin Gundersen 		525
19.1 Introduction 525
19.2 Streamer Motivation 526
19.2.1 Power Modulator Technology for Generation of Transient Plasma 530
19.2.2 Transient Plasma Combustion of Fuels in Constant Volume Chambers 531
19.3 Pulse Detonation Engine 533
19.4 Internal Combustion Engine Applications 537
19.5 Transient Plasma Ignition in High-Altitude, High-Speed Aircraft 538
19.6 Summary 540
19.6 References 541
20 Transient Plasma-Assisted Diesel Exhaust Remediation
M. Gundersen, V. Puchkarev, A. Kharlov, G. Roth, J. Yampolsky, and D. Erwin 		543
20.1 Introduction 543
20.2 Experiment 544
20.2.1 Diesel Exhaust Treatment 544
20.2.2 Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF) of NO/NOx 545
20.3 Experimental Results 545
20.3.1 Pulsed Power and Plasma Formation 545
20.3.2 Time-and Space-Resolved NO/NOx Depletion 547
20.3.3 Plasma Chemistry 548
20.3.4 Plasma-Assisted Catalyst 549
20.4 Summary 549
20.4 References 550
21 Plasma Display Panel
Jae Koo Lee and John P. Verboncoeur 		551
21.1 Introduction and Overview 551
21.2 History and Background 552
21.3 Alternating Current Plasma Display Panel (AC-PDP) 552
21.3.1 The Plasma Discharge Driven by a High Voltage 552
21.3.1.1 Paschen’s Law for Breakdown 552
21.3.1.2 Collisional Mean Free Paths 555
21.3.2 One-Dimensional AC-PDP Model 555
21.3.3 Two-Dimensional AC-PDP Models 559
21.3.3.1 The Matrix and the Surface Discharge AC-PDP 559
21.3.3.2 The Discharge Characteristics in the AC-PDP Cell 560
21.3.4 Driving Voltage for the AC-PDP 562
21.3.5 Research Status and Remaining Issues 564
21.4 Other PDP Types 565
21.5 Conclusions 566
21.5 References 567
22 Low-Pressure Discharge Light Sources
Graeme Lister 		569
22.1 Introduction 569
22.2 The Physics of Low-Pressure Discharge Lamps 571
22.2.1 Collisional Processes 571
22.2.2 Radiation Transport 571
22.2.3 Ambipolar Diffusion and Cataphoresis 572
22.2.4 Power Balance 572
22.3 Conventional (Electroded) Fluorescent Lamps 573
22.3.1 The Physics of Electroded Fluorescent Lamps 573
22.3.2 Diagnostics and Modeling of the Positive Column 575
22.3.3 Diagnostics and Modeling of Electrode Regions 578
22.4 Electrodeless Fluorescent Lamps 579
22.4.1 Potential Benefits of Electrodeless Discharges for Lighting 579
22.4.2 Electromagnetic Interference and Safety 580
22.4.3 The Physics of Electrodeless Fluorescent Lamps 580
22.4.4 Inductive Fluorescent Discharge Lamps 580
22.4.4.1 Reentrant Cavity Lamps 581
22.4.4.2 Lamps with Outer Coils 582
22.4.4.3 Toroidal Lamps 582
22.4.5 Capacitively Coupled Fluorescent Lamps 583
22.4.6 Surface Wave Fluorescent Discharge Lamps 584
22.4.7 Diagnostics and Modeling of Electrodeless Lamps 584
22.5 Low-Pressure Sodium Lamps 586
22.6 Rare Gas Discharges for Lighting 587
22.7 Alternatives to Mercury 588
22.8 Conclusions 590
22.8 References 590
23 High-Pressure Plasma Light Sources
Klaus Günther 		595
23.1 Introduction and Basic Equations 595
23.2 Application Demands 597
23.2.1 Photometric Properties 597
23.2.2 Operation Requirements 599
23.2.3 Costs and Environmental Aspects 599
23.3 High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps and their Operational Principle 600
23.3.1 The Plasma of HID Lamps 600
23.3.2 High-Pressure Mercury (HPM) Lamps 603
23.3.3 Metal Halide (MH) Lamps 604
23.3.4 High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamps 606
23.3.5 Technical Applications 607
23.3.6 New Developments 607
23.4 Lamp Operation 609
23.4.1 Starting of HID Lamps 609
23.4.2 Conventional Operation 610
23.4.3 Electronic Operation 610
23.4.3.1 General Considerations 610
23.4.3.2 Electronic Control and New Discharge Conditions 612
23.4.3.3 Dimming of HID Lamps 615
23.5 Conclusions 616
23.5 References 616
24 EUV Light Sources
Larissa Juschkin, Günther Derra, and Klaus Bergmann 		619
24.1 Introduction 619
24.1.1 General 619
24.1.2 EUV Lithography 620
24.1.3 EUV Light Sources 624
24.2 Plasmas as EUV Radiators 625
24.3 Laser-Produced Plasmas for EUV Generation 632
24.3.1 Principles and Concepts 632
24.3.1.1 Targets 634
24.3.1.2 Lasers 634
24.3.2 Technological Aspects and Current Status 635
24.4 Discharge-Produced Plasmas for EUV Generation 635
24.4.1 Principles and Concepts 635
24.4.2 Technological Aspects and Current Status 638
24.5 System Integration 642
24.5.1 Debris Mitigation 642
24.5.2 Collector 645
24.6 Outlook 648
24.6 References 648
25 Plasma Etching in Microelectronics
Harald H. Richter, Steffen Marschmeyer, and André Wolff 		655
25.1 Characterization of Plasma Etching 655
25.2 Etching Techniques 657
25.2.1 Physical Etching 658
25.2.2 Chemical Etching 658
25.2.3 Chemical–Physical Etching 659
25.3 Equipment-Related Topics 660
25.4 Etch Chemistries 662
25.5 Dry Etching in Advanced Technologies (Selected Examples) 663
25.5.1 Silicon Dry Etching 664
25.5.1.1 Trench Etching 664
25.5.1.2 Polysilicon Gate Etching 665
25.5.2 Oxide Etch Processes 666
25.5.3 Metal Etch 667
25.6 Process Control 667
25.7 Plasma-Process-Induced Damage 669
25.7.1 Contamination Effects 670
25.7.2 Charging Damage 670
25.8 Summary and Future Outlook 671
25.8 References 672
26 Magnetron Discharges for Thin Film Deposition
Klaus Ellmer 		675
26.1 Introduction 675
26.2 Brief Historical Overview 675
26.3 Charges in a Magnetic Field 679
26.3.1 Drift of Charges in Crossed E×B Fiels 681
26.4 Principle of a Magnetron Discharge 682
26.5 Types of Magnetron Discharges 684
26.6 Discharge Characteristics 687
26.7 Potential Distribution 689
26.8 Excitation of Magnetron Sources 691
26.9 Reactive Magnetron Sputtering 693
26.10 Self-Sputtering of Metals 693
26.11 Ionized Magnetron Sputtering 694
26.12 Magnetron Sputtering of Thin Films 695
26.12.1 Metallic Films 696
26.12.2 Oxidic Coatings 699
26.12.3 Semiconducting Films 705
26.13 Industrial Magnetron Sputtering Systems 708
26.14 Advantages and Limitations of Magnetron Sputtering Sources 708
26.14 References 709
27 Hollow Cathodes and Plasma Jets for Thin Film Deposition
Zdenek Hubicka 		715
27.1 Introduction 715
27.2 Direct Current (DC) Hollow Cathode Discharge 715
27.3 Radiofrequency (RF) Hollow Cathode Discharge 720
27.4 RF and DC Hollow Cathode Plasma Jet Systems for Low-Pressure PVD of Thin Films 722
27.5 DC and RF Hollow Cathode Characterization During PVD of Thin Films 728
27.6 Multiplasma Jet System for Coatings of Higher Surfaces and Deposition of Alloys 730
27.7 Deposition of ferroelectric thin films by RF-modulated plasma jet systems 733
27.8 Summary 735
27.8 References 735
28 Low-Temperature Plasmas for Polymer Surface Modification
Jürgen Meichsner 		739
28.1 Introduction 739
28.2 Low-Temperature Plasma and Plasma–Polymer Interaction 739
28.2.1 Characterization of Low-Pressure Electric Gas Discharges 739
28.2.2 Plasma Species and Expected Effects in Polymer Surface treatment 744
28.2.3 Methods for Characterization of Plasma-Treated Polymers 746
28.2.4 Polymer Samples and Thin Film Preparation 748
28.3 Plasma Modification of Polyethylene and Polystyrene 749
28.4 Plasma Modification of Wool and Cellulose Fabrics 752
28.5 Summary 755
28.5 References 756
29 Plasma-Enhanced Deposition of Superhard Thin Films
Achim Lunk 		757
29.1 Characterization of Superhard Materials 757
29.2 Plasma-Enhanced Deposition of Diamond and Diamond-Like Carbon 759
29.2.1 Deposition of Diamond 760
29.2.2 Plasma-Enhanced Deposition of Diamond-Like Carbon 765
29.3 Plasma-Enhanced Deposition of Cubic Boron Nitride Films 766
29.3.1 Physical Vapor Deposition 769
29.3.1.1 Ion-Beam Assisted Deposition (IBAD) 769
29.3.1.2 Plasma-Activated Reactive Evaporation (PARE) 770
29.3.1.3 Reactive Sputtering for c-BN Deposition (RST) 773
29.3.1.4 Plasma-Enhanced Laser Deposition 776
29.3.2 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition 779
29.3.2.1 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition in Radiofrequency (rf) Discharges 780
29.3.2.2 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition in ECR Discharges 781
29.3.2.3 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition by Direct Current (dc) Plasma Jet 782
29.3 References 782
30 Applications of Dusty Plasmas
Rainer Hippler and Holger Kersten 		787
30.1 Introduction 787
30.2 Particle Synthesis in Acetylene Plasmas 788
30.3 Coating of Powder Particles in a Combined Radiofrequency/Magnetron Discharge 792
30.4 Deposition of Protective Coatings onto Phosphore Particles 794
30.5 Formation and Deposition of Nanosize Clusters on Surfaces 796
30.5 References 800
31 Plasma-Assisted Surface Modification of Biointerfaces
Andreas Ohl and Karsten Schröder 		803
31.1 Introduction 803
31.2 Plasma Surface Fuctionalization for Cell Adhesion Improvement 806
31.3 Plasma-Induced Surface Grafting of Biomolecules 810
31.4 Plasma-Assisted Chemical Vapour Deposition for Coating of Biomedical Devices 813
31.4.1 Functional Plasma Polymer Coatings 813
31.4.2 Plasma-Assisted Bioceramic Coating 816
31.5 Conclusions 817
31.5 References 817
32 Cold-Plasma-Based Sterilization
Mounir Laroussi 		821
32.1 Introduction 821
32.2 Low-Pressure Studies 822
32.3 Cold Plasma Sources Used in Plasma-Based Sterilization 823
32.3.1 The Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) 823
32.3.2 The Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jet (APPJ)) 824
32.3.3 The Plasma Pencil 825
32.4 Kinetics of Inactivation and Inactivation Agents 826
32.4.1 Kinetics 826
32.4.2 Inactivation Agents 829
32.4.2.1 Heat 829
32.4.2.2 Charged Particles 830
32.4.2.3 Ultraviolet Radiation 830
32.4.2.4 Reactive Neutral Species 831
32.5 Inactivation of Biofilms 833
32.6 Conclusions and Prospects 834
32.6 References 835
33 Atmospheric Plasma: A Universal Tool for Physicians?
Eva Stoffels 		837
33.1 Background 837
33.2 How to Obtain? (Methods of Generation) 839
33.3 How to Apply? (Various Effects on Living Subjects) 844
33.3.1 Lethal Effects 844
33.3.2 Sublethal Effects 849
33.3.2.1 Cell Detachment 855
33.3.2.2 Apoptosis 858
33.3.3 Comparison with Common Means 861
33.4 Concluding Remarks 862
33.4 References 862
34 Markets for Plasma Technology
Klaus-Dieter Weltmann, Martin Schmidt, and Kurt Becker 		865
34.1 Introduction 865
34.2 Market Situation in Selected Areas 866
34.2.1 Plasma Light Sources 866
34.2.2 Environmental Applications 867
34.2.3 Energy Generation and Energy Saving 869
34.2.4 Surface Treatment Technology 870
34.2.5 Information Technology 870
34.2.5.1 Chip Production 871
34.2.5.2 Optical Storage Media 871
34.2.5.3 Flat Panel Displays 871
34.2.6 Mechanical Engineering 872
34.2.7 Medical Technique, Biotechnology, and Pharmacy 873
34.2.8 Textile Industry 873
34.2.9 Thrusters 874
34.3 New Markets 874
34.4 Conclusions 877
34.4 References 878
  Index 881

 
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