Fundamentals of Gas Shale Reservoirs
1. Auflage September 2015
424 Seiten, Hardcover
Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBN:
978-1-118-64579-6
John Wiley & Sons
Provides comprehensive information about the key exploration, development and optimization concepts required for gas shale reservoirs
* Includes statistics about gas shale resources and countries that have shale gas potential
* Addresses the challenges that oil and gas industries may confront for gas shale reservoir exploration and development
* Introduces petrophysical analysis, rock physics, geomechanics and passive seismic methods for gas shale plays
* Details shale gas environmental issues and challenges, economic consideration for gas shale reservoirs
* Includes case studies of major producing gas shale formations
Contributors xv
Preface xvii
1 Gas Shale: Global Significance Distribution and Challenges 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Shale Gas Overview 1
1.3 The Significance of Shale Gas 4
1.4 Global Shale Gas Resources 5
1.5 Global Resource Data 7
1.6 Data Assessment 11
1.7 Industry Challenges 13
1.8 Discussion 14
1.9 Conclusions 15
Appendix A.1 Global Shale Gas Resource Data 16
2 Organic Matter?]Rich Shale Depositional Environments 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Processes Behind the Deposition of Organic Matter?]Rich Shale 23
2.3 Stratigraphic Distribution of Organic Matter?]Rich Shales 25
2.4 Geographic Distribution of Organic Matter?]Rich Shales 27
2.5 Organic Matter?]Rich Shale Depositional Environments 34
2.6 Conclusion 39
3 Geochemical Assessment of Unconventional Shale Gas Resource Systems 47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Objective and Background 49
3.3 Kerogen Quantity and Quality 49
3.4 Sample Type and Quality 51
3.5 Kerogen Type and Compositional Yields 52
3.6 Thermal Maturity 54
3.7 Organoporosity Development 55
3.8 Gas Contents 57
3.9 Expulsion-Retention of Petroleum 57
3.10 Secondary (Petroleum) Cracking 58
3.11 Upper Maturity Limit for Shale Gas 58
3.12 Gas Composition and Carbon Isotopes 59
3.13 Additional Geochemical Analyses for Shale Gas Resource System Evaluation 61
3.14 Oil and Condensate with Shale Gas 63
3.15 Major Shale Gas Resource Systems 64
3.16 Conclusions 65
4 Sequence Stratigraphy of Unconventional Resource Shales 71
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 General Sequence Stratigraphic Model for Unconventional Resource Shales 71
4.3 Ages of Sea?]Level Cycles 72
4.4 Water Depth of Mud Transport and Deposition 73
4.5 Criteria to Identify Sequences and Systems Tracts 74
4.6 Paleozoic Resource Shale Examples 74
4.7 Mesozoic Resource Shale Examples 80
4.8 Cenozoic Resource Shale Example 83
4.9 Conclusions 84
4.10 Applications 84
5 Pore Geometry in Gas Shale Reservoirs 89
5.1 Introduction 89
5.2 Samples Characteristics 90
5.3 Experimental Methodology 91
5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental PSD Methods 95
5.5 Permeability Measurement 95
5.6 Results 96
5.7 Discussion 103
5.8 Conclusions 112
Appendix 5.A XRD Results 114
6 Petrophysical Evaluation of Gas Shale Reservoirs 117
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Key Properties for Gas Shale Evaluation 117
6.3 Petrophysical Measurements of Gas Shale Reservoirs 121
6.4 Well Log Analysis of Gas Shale Reservoirs 125
7 Pore Pressure Prediction for Shale Formations Using well Log Data 139
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Overpressure-Generating Mechanisms 140
7.3 Overpressure Estimation Methods 146
7.4 The Role of Tectonic Activities on Pore Pressure In Shales 151
7.5 Discussion 160
7.6 Conclusions 165
8 Geomechanics of Gas Shales 169
8.1 Introduction 169
8.2 Mechanical Properties of Gas Shale Reservoirs 170
8.3 Anisotropy 175
8.4 Wellbore Instability in Gas Shale Reservoirs 176
9 Rock Physics Analysis of Shale Reservoirs 191
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Laboratory Measurements on Shales: Available Datasets 192
9.3 Organic Matter Effects on Elastic Properties 192
9.4 Partial Saturation Effects 195
9.5 Maturity Effects 197
9.6 Seismic Response of Orss 201
9.7 Conclusions 203
10 Passive Seismic Methods for Unconventional Resource Development 207
10.1 Introduction 207
10.2 Geomechanics and Natural Fracture Basics for Application to Hydraulic Fracturing 209
10.3 Seismic Phenomena 213
10.4 Microseismic Downhole Monitoring 216
10.5 Monitoring Passive Seismic Emissions with Surface and Shallow Buried Arrays 222
10.6 Integrating Interpreting and Using Passive Seismic Data 235
10.7 Conclusions 241
11 Gas Transport Processes in Shale 245
11.1 Introduction 245
11.2 Detection of Nanopores in Shale Samples 247
11.3 Gas Flow in Micropores and Nanopores 248
11.4 Gas Flow in a Network of Pores in Shale 251
11.5 Gas Sorption in Shale 252
11.6 Diffusion in Bulk Kerogen 253
11.7 Measurement of Gas Molecular Diffusion into Kerogen 255
11.8 Pulse?]Decay Permeability Measurement Test 256
11.9 Crushed Sample Test 260
11.10 Canister Desorption Test 262
12 A Review of the Critical Issues Surrounding the Simulation of Transport and Storage in Shale Reservoirs 267
12.1 Introduction 267
12.2 Microgeometry of Organic?]Rich Shale Reservoirs 268
12.3 Gas Storage Mechanisms 269
12.4 Fluid Transport 270
12.5 Capillary Pressure Relaxation to Equilibrium State and Deposition of Stimulation Water 273
12.6 Characterization of Fluid Behavior and Equations of State Valid for Nanoporous Media 274
12.7 Upscaling Heterogeneous Shale?]Gas Reservoirs into Large Homogenized Simulation Grid Blocks 277
12.8 Final Remarks 280
13 Performance Analysis of Unconventional Shale Reservoirs 283
13.1 Introduction 283
13.2 Shale Reservoir Production 283
13.3 Flow Rate Decline Analysis 284
13.4 Flow Rate and Pressure Transient Analysis in Unconventional Reservoirs 288
13.5 Reservoir Modeling and Simulation 292
13.6 Specialty Short-Term Tests 295
13.7 Enhanced Oil Recovery 297
13.8 Conclusion 298
14 Resource Estimation for Shale Gas Reservoirs 301
14.1 Introduction 301
14.2 Methodology 309
14.3 Resource Evaluation of Shale Gas Plays 310
14.4 Discussion 320
15 Molecular Simulation of Gas Adsorption in Minerals and Coal: Implications for Gas Occurrence in Shale Gas Reservoirs 325
15.1 Introduction 325
15.2 MS of Gas Adsorption on Minerals 327
15.3 Conclusions 337
16 Wettability of Gas Shale Reservoirs 341
16.1 Introduction 341
16.2 Wettability 341
16.3 Imbibition in Gas Shales 342
16.4 Factors Influencing Water Imbibition in Shales 343
16.5 Quantitative Interpretation of Imbibition Data 352
16.6 Estimation of Brine Imbibition at the Field Scale 354
16.7 Initial Water Saturation in Gas Shales 356
16.8 Conclusions 356
17 Gas Shale Challenges Over The Asset Life Cycle 361
17.1 Introduction 361
17.2 The Asset Life Cycle 361
17.3 Exploration Phase Discussion 362
17.4 Appraisal Phase Discussion 365
17.5 Development Phase Discussion 367
17.6 Production Phase Discussion 375
17.7 Rejuvenation Phase Discussion 376
17.8 Conclusions--Recommended Practices 377
18 Gas Shale Environmental Issues and Challenges 381
18.1 Overview 381
18.2 Water Use 381
18.3 The Disposal and Reuse of Fracking Wastewater 382
18.4 Groundwater Contamination 384
18.5 Methane Emissions 386
18.6 Other Air Emissions 387
18.7 Social Impacts on Shale Gas Communities 388
18.8 Induced Seismicity: Wastewater Injection and Earthquakes 388
18.9 Regulatory Developments 389
18.10 Disclosure of Fracking Chemicals 389
18.11 At the Federal Government Level 390
18.12 Conclusion 391
Index 397
Preface xvii
1 Gas Shale: Global Significance Distribution and Challenges 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Shale Gas Overview 1
1.3 The Significance of Shale Gas 4
1.4 Global Shale Gas Resources 5
1.5 Global Resource Data 7
1.6 Data Assessment 11
1.7 Industry Challenges 13
1.8 Discussion 14
1.9 Conclusions 15
Appendix A.1 Global Shale Gas Resource Data 16
2 Organic Matter?]Rich Shale Depositional Environments 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Processes Behind the Deposition of Organic Matter?]Rich Shale 23
2.3 Stratigraphic Distribution of Organic Matter?]Rich Shales 25
2.4 Geographic Distribution of Organic Matter?]Rich Shales 27
2.5 Organic Matter?]Rich Shale Depositional Environments 34
2.6 Conclusion 39
3 Geochemical Assessment of Unconventional Shale Gas Resource Systems 47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Objective and Background 49
3.3 Kerogen Quantity and Quality 49
3.4 Sample Type and Quality 51
3.5 Kerogen Type and Compositional Yields 52
3.6 Thermal Maturity 54
3.7 Organoporosity Development 55
3.8 Gas Contents 57
3.9 Expulsion-Retention of Petroleum 57
3.10 Secondary (Petroleum) Cracking 58
3.11 Upper Maturity Limit for Shale Gas 58
3.12 Gas Composition and Carbon Isotopes 59
3.13 Additional Geochemical Analyses for Shale Gas Resource System Evaluation 61
3.14 Oil and Condensate with Shale Gas 63
3.15 Major Shale Gas Resource Systems 64
3.16 Conclusions 65
4 Sequence Stratigraphy of Unconventional Resource Shales 71
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 General Sequence Stratigraphic Model for Unconventional Resource Shales 71
4.3 Ages of Sea?]Level Cycles 72
4.4 Water Depth of Mud Transport and Deposition 73
4.5 Criteria to Identify Sequences and Systems Tracts 74
4.6 Paleozoic Resource Shale Examples 74
4.7 Mesozoic Resource Shale Examples 80
4.8 Cenozoic Resource Shale Example 83
4.9 Conclusions 84
4.10 Applications 84
5 Pore Geometry in Gas Shale Reservoirs 89
5.1 Introduction 89
5.2 Samples Characteristics 90
5.3 Experimental Methodology 91
5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental PSD Methods 95
5.5 Permeability Measurement 95
5.6 Results 96
5.7 Discussion 103
5.8 Conclusions 112
Appendix 5.A XRD Results 114
6 Petrophysical Evaluation of Gas Shale Reservoirs 117
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Key Properties for Gas Shale Evaluation 117
6.3 Petrophysical Measurements of Gas Shale Reservoirs 121
6.4 Well Log Analysis of Gas Shale Reservoirs 125
7 Pore Pressure Prediction for Shale Formations Using well Log Data 139
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Overpressure-Generating Mechanisms 140
7.3 Overpressure Estimation Methods 146
7.4 The Role of Tectonic Activities on Pore Pressure In Shales 151
7.5 Discussion 160
7.6 Conclusions 165
8 Geomechanics of Gas Shales 169
8.1 Introduction 169
8.2 Mechanical Properties of Gas Shale Reservoirs 170
8.3 Anisotropy 175
8.4 Wellbore Instability in Gas Shale Reservoirs 176
9 Rock Physics Analysis of Shale Reservoirs 191
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Laboratory Measurements on Shales: Available Datasets 192
9.3 Organic Matter Effects on Elastic Properties 192
9.4 Partial Saturation Effects 195
9.5 Maturity Effects 197
9.6 Seismic Response of Orss 201
9.7 Conclusions 203
10 Passive Seismic Methods for Unconventional Resource Development 207
10.1 Introduction 207
10.2 Geomechanics and Natural Fracture Basics for Application to Hydraulic Fracturing 209
10.3 Seismic Phenomena 213
10.4 Microseismic Downhole Monitoring 216
10.5 Monitoring Passive Seismic Emissions with Surface and Shallow Buried Arrays 222
10.6 Integrating Interpreting and Using Passive Seismic Data 235
10.7 Conclusions 241
11 Gas Transport Processes in Shale 245
11.1 Introduction 245
11.2 Detection of Nanopores in Shale Samples 247
11.3 Gas Flow in Micropores and Nanopores 248
11.4 Gas Flow in a Network of Pores in Shale 251
11.5 Gas Sorption in Shale 252
11.6 Diffusion in Bulk Kerogen 253
11.7 Measurement of Gas Molecular Diffusion into Kerogen 255
11.8 Pulse?]Decay Permeability Measurement Test 256
11.9 Crushed Sample Test 260
11.10 Canister Desorption Test 262
12 A Review of the Critical Issues Surrounding the Simulation of Transport and Storage in Shale Reservoirs 267
12.1 Introduction 267
12.2 Microgeometry of Organic?]Rich Shale Reservoirs 268
12.3 Gas Storage Mechanisms 269
12.4 Fluid Transport 270
12.5 Capillary Pressure Relaxation to Equilibrium State and Deposition of Stimulation Water 273
12.6 Characterization of Fluid Behavior and Equations of State Valid for Nanoporous Media 274
12.7 Upscaling Heterogeneous Shale?]Gas Reservoirs into Large Homogenized Simulation Grid Blocks 277
12.8 Final Remarks 280
13 Performance Analysis of Unconventional Shale Reservoirs 283
13.1 Introduction 283
13.2 Shale Reservoir Production 283
13.3 Flow Rate Decline Analysis 284
13.4 Flow Rate and Pressure Transient Analysis in Unconventional Reservoirs 288
13.5 Reservoir Modeling and Simulation 292
13.6 Specialty Short-Term Tests 295
13.7 Enhanced Oil Recovery 297
13.8 Conclusion 298
14 Resource Estimation for Shale Gas Reservoirs 301
14.1 Introduction 301
14.2 Methodology 309
14.3 Resource Evaluation of Shale Gas Plays 310
14.4 Discussion 320
15 Molecular Simulation of Gas Adsorption in Minerals and Coal: Implications for Gas Occurrence in Shale Gas Reservoirs 325
15.1 Introduction 325
15.2 MS of Gas Adsorption on Minerals 327
15.3 Conclusions 337
16 Wettability of Gas Shale Reservoirs 341
16.1 Introduction 341
16.2 Wettability 341
16.3 Imbibition in Gas Shales 342
16.4 Factors Influencing Water Imbibition in Shales 343
16.5 Quantitative Interpretation of Imbibition Data 352
16.6 Estimation of Brine Imbibition at the Field Scale 354
16.7 Initial Water Saturation in Gas Shales 356
16.8 Conclusions 356
17 Gas Shale Challenges Over The Asset Life Cycle 361
17.1 Introduction 361
17.2 The Asset Life Cycle 361
17.3 Exploration Phase Discussion 362
17.4 Appraisal Phase Discussion 365
17.5 Development Phase Discussion 367
17.6 Production Phase Discussion 375
17.7 Rejuvenation Phase Discussion 376
17.8 Conclusions--Recommended Practices 377
18 Gas Shale Environmental Issues and Challenges 381
18.1 Overview 381
18.2 Water Use 381
18.3 The Disposal and Reuse of Fracking Wastewater 382
18.4 Groundwater Contamination 384
18.5 Methane Emissions 386
18.6 Other Air Emissions 387
18.7 Social Impacts on Shale Gas Communities 388
18.8 Induced Seismicity: Wastewater Injection and Earthquakes 388
18.9 Regulatory Developments 389
18.10 Disclosure of Fracking Chemicals 389
18.11 At the Federal Government Level 390
18.12 Conclusion 391
Index 397
"Comprehensive and up-to-date, Fundamentals of Gas Shale Reservoirs is an essential reference for anyone interested in gas shale reservoirs. It is also a must have text for students, of any discipline, studying non-conventional oil and gas resources and it is bound to become the 'gold standard' textbook in this field. In addition, this book is available in both print and e-book edition, making it easy to choose the format that best suits your needs." (Tundraco, 1 October 2015)
Reza Rezaee is a Professor in the Department of Petroleum Engineering at Curtin University, Australia. He is the winner of Australian Gas innovation research 2012 award for introducing a new method to enhance natural gas production from tight gas reservoirs. He has published more than 120 peer-reviewed journal and conference papers and is the author of 3 books. His current research has been focused on integrated reservoir characterization, formation evaluation and petrophysics. He is a former "Research Fellow", School of Geology and Geophysics, Oklahoma University.