Electromagnetic Technologies in Food Science
1. Auflage Januar 2022
448 Seiten, Hardcover
Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBN:
978-1-119-75951-5
John Wiley & Sons
Weitere Versionen
A comprehensive source of in-depth information provided on existing and emerging food technologies based on the electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic Technologies in Food Science examines various methods employed in food applications that are based on the entire electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. Focusing on recent advances and challenges in food science and technology, this is an up-to-date volume that features vital contributions coming from an international panel of experts who have shared both fundamental and advanced knowledge of information on the dosimetry methods, and on potential applications of gamma irradiation, electron beams, X-rays, radio and microwaves, ultraviolet, visible, pulsed light, and more.
Organized into four parts, the text begins with an accessible overview of the physics of the electromagnetic spectrum, followed by discussion on the application of the EM spectrum to non-thermal food processing. The physics of infrared radiation, microwaves, and other advanced heating methods are then deliberated in detail--supported by case studies and examples that illustrate a range of both current and potential applications of EM-based methods. The concluding section of the book describes analytical techniques adopted for quality control, such as hyperspectral imaging, infrared and Raman spectroscopy. This authoritative book resource:
* Covers advanced theoretical knowledge and practical applications on the use of EM spectrum as novel methods in food processing technology
* Discusses the latest progress in developing quality control methods, thus enabling the control of continuous fast-speed processes
* Explores future challenges and benefits of employing electromagnetic spectrum in food technology applications
* Addresses emerging processing technologies related to improving safety, preservation, and overall quality of various food commodities
Electromagnetic Technologies in Food Science is an essential reading material for undergraduate and graduate students, researchers, academics, and agri-food professionals working in the area of food preservation, novel food processing techniques and sustainable food production.
List of Contributors xv
Foreword xix
Preface xxi
1 Physics of the Electromagnetic Spectrum 1
Michael Vollmer
1 Introduction 1
2 Description of Electromagnetic Waves 2
2.1 Properties of Waves 2
2.2 Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves 5
3 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves: Geometrical Versus Wave Optics 7
4 Description of Particle Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation 10
5 Exponential Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation in Matter 11
6 Microscopic Structure of Matter and Origin of EM Radiation 14
6.1 UV-VIS and Atomic Spectra 14
6.2 IR and Molecular Spectra 16
6.3 X-Rays and Excitations of Inner Electrons in Atoms 18
6.4 gamma-Rays and Nuclear Spectra 19
6.5 Blackbody Radiation: Generating UV, VIS, and IR Radiation from Hot Objects 20
6.6 Generation of Microwave and RF EM Waves 21
7 Interaction of EM Radiation with Food 23
7.1 Low Frequencies: RF and Microwaves 23
7.2 IR Radiation 24
7.3 Visible and UV Radiation 25
7.4 X-Rays and gamma-Radiation 27
7.4.1 Atomic Photo Effect 27
7.4.2 Compton Effect 28
7.4.3 Pair Generation Effect 28
7.4.4 Probabilities for Absorbing High-Energy Radiation 29
7.4.5 Consequence of Absorption of High-Energy Photons by Matter 29
8 Outlook 31
References 31
2 Dosimetry in Food Irradiation 33
Bhaskar Sanyal and Sunil K. Ghosh
1 Introduction 33
2 Fundamentals of Dosimetry 34
2.1 What is Dosimetry 35
2.2 Absorbed Dose 35
2.3 Physical Aspects of Radiation Absorption 36
2.3.1 Photoelectric Effect 36
2.3.2 Compton Scattering 36
2.3.3 Pair Production 36
2.3.4 Interaction of Charged Particles 37
3 Dosimetry Systems for Food Irradiation Application 37
3.1 Characterization of Dosimetry Systems 39
3.1.1 Calibrating the Dosimetry System 39
3.1.2 Establishing Traceability 39
3.1.3 Determining Batch Homogeneity 40
3.1.4 Determining Uncertainty in the Measured Dose Value 40
3.1.5 Understanding and Quantifying Effects of the Influencing Quantities 40
3.2 Specific Dosimetry Systems for Food Irradiation Applications 41
3.2.1 Chemical Dosimeter (Fricke and Ceric-cerous Sulphate) 41
3.2.2 Alanine Dosimeter 42
3.2.3 Radiochromic Dosimeter 42
3.3 Role of Product Density in the Absorbed Dose 43
4 Dosimetry in Food Irradiation Facility 43
4.1 Dosimetry in Radionuclide-Based Irradiation Facility 44
4.1.1 Dose Mapping Experiment 44
4.1.2 Routine Processing of Food Product 46
4.2 Dosimetry in Linear Accelerator (LINAC) Facility 46
5 Emerging Field of Dosimetry in Low-Energy Accelerator Irradiator for Surface Treatment of Food 49
6 Conclusion and Future Outlook 50
References 51
3 Gamma Irradiation 53
Xuetong Fan and Brendan A. Niemira
1 Introduction 53
2 Characteristics and Generation of gamma-rays 54
3 Compton Effect 56
4 Basic Effects on Food: Interaction of gamma-rays with Matter 57
5 Dose Unit, Dose Rate, and Dose Distribution 59
6 gamma-Ray Facility 60
7 Applications of gamma-ray Radiation in Foods 60
7.1 Improving Microbial Safety 61
7.2 Preservation of Food 63
7.3 Phytosanitary Treatment 64
7.4 Applications on Low-Moisture Foods 64
7.5 Potential Uses of gamma Irradiation for Degradation of Mycotoxin and Allergen 65
8 Factors Impacting the Efficacy of gamma-rays 66
8.1 Temperature 66
8.2 Atmosphere 66
8.3 Water Activity 67
8.4 Composition of Foods (Antioxidants) 67
9 Conclusion 67
Acknowledgments 68
References 68
4 Electron Beams 74
Rajeev Bhat, Benny P. George, and Vicente M. Gómez-López
1 Introduction 74
2 Accelerator as a Source of Ionizing Radiation 76
3 Working Principle of EB Accelerator 77
4 Types of Industrial Electron Accelerators 77
5 Classification of Industrial Electron Beam (EB) Accelerators 78
6 Absorbed Dose 78
7 Radiation Dosimetry 79
7.1 Theoretical Aspect of EB Dosimetry 79
7.2 Practical Aspect of EB Dosimetry 79
7.3 Dosimetry Systems 80
7.4 Calibration of Dosimetry Systems 81
7.4.1 Performance Check of Measuring Instruments 81
7.4.2 Calibration of Routine Dosimeters 81
7.4.3 Establishing Measurement Traceability to National/International Standards 82
8 Scanning Characteristics of the Electron Beam Accelerator 82
9 Depth Dose Profile of Electron Beam 82
10 Process Validation of Industrial EB Accelerator 83
10.1 Installation Qualification (IQ) 84
10.2 Operational Qualification (OQ) 85
10.3 Performance Qualification (PQ) 85
10.4 Routine Monitoring 86
11 EB Irradiation in Food Applications 86
11.1 Mechanism 93
12 Legislations on Electron Beams Application 93
13 Conclusions and Future Outlook 96
Acknowledgements 97
Conflict of Interest Statement 97
References 97
5 X-Rays 105
Francesco E. Ricciardi, Amalia Conte, and Matteo A. Del Nobile
1 Introduction 105
1.1 Thermal and Non-thermal Technologies 105
1.2 Irradiation Technology 107
1.3 X-Rays 109
2 Mechanism of Action of X-Rays 109
3 Case Study 111
3.1 Seafood Products 111
3.2 Fresh and Dried Fruit 115
3.3 Dairy Products 116
3.4 Meat-Based Foods 118
4 Effects of X-Rays on Packaging 119
5 Regulation of X-Ray Irradiation 120
6 Conclusion and Future Outlook 122
References 122
6 Ultraviolet Light 128
Sandra N. Guerrero, Mariana Ferrario, Marcela Schenk, Daniela Fenoglio, and Antonella Andreone
1 Introduction 128
2 Characterization of UV-C Dose 130
3 Rational Use of the Hurdle Approach in the Design of Food Preservation Technologies 134
3.1 UV-C light-based Hurdle Combinations 136
3.1.1 Heat 136
3.1.2 UV-C Combined with Other Novel Technologies 153
3.1.3 UV-C Combined with the Addition of Natural Antimicrobials 162
3.1.4 UV-C Combined with Sanitizers 164
4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 170
Acknowledgments 171
References 171
7 Visible Light 181
Laura M. Hinds, Mysore L. Bhavya, Colm P. O'Donnell, and Brijesh K. Tiwari
1 Introduction 181
2 Sources 182
3 Quantifying Light Treatment 183
4 Applications of Visible Light in the Food Industry 184
4.1 Postharvest Handling 184
4.2 Food Safety 186
5 Challenges and Limitations 194
6 Conclusion 194
References 194
8 Pulsed Light 200
Vicente M. Gómez-López, Rajeev Bhat, and José A. Pellicer
1 Introduction 200
2 Pulse Light as a Technology Based on the Electromagnetic Spectrum 201
3 Photochemistry and Photophysics Laws 202
4 Factors Affecting Efficacy 203
5 Pulsed Light Systems 204
6 Effect on Microorganisms 205
6.1 Action Spectrum 205
6.2 Inactivation Mechanism 205
6.3 Photoreactivation 206
6.4 Sublethal Injury 207
6.5 Viable but Non-culturable State 207
7 Inactivation of Enzymes 207
8 Inactivation of Allergens 208
9 Effect on Lipids 209
10 Effect on Health-Related Compounds 209
11 Effect on Vitamin D 210
12 Effect on Pesticides 210
13 Energy Efficiency 211
14 Legislations (Regulations and Safety) of Pulsed Light 211
15 Conclusions and Future Outlook 212
Conflict of Interest Statement 212
References 212
9 Infrared Radiation 220
Yvan Llave and Noboru Sakai
1 Introduction 220
2 Fundamentals and Theory of Infrared Radiation 221
2.1 Principles of Infrared Radiation Heating 221
2.1.1 Infrared Wavelength 221
2.1.2 Basics Laws of Infrared Radiation 222
2.2 Characteristics of Thermal Radiation 224
2.2.1 Types of Infrared Radiation 224
2.2.2 Heat Generation 224
2.2.3 Sources of Infrared Heating 224
2.3 Special Features of Infrared Radiation 226
2.3.1 Factors Related to the Penetration of IR 226
2.3.2 Advantages of IR Processing 226
2.3.3 Limitations of Infrared Radiation Processing 227
2.4 Interaction of Infrared Radiation with Food 227
2.4.1 Fundamentals of Interaction with Foods 227
2.4.2 Selective Infrared Radiation Absorption of Foods 228
3 Infrared Radiative Properties of Food Materials 229
3.1 Attenuation of Radiation 229
3.2 Properties Related to the Radiative Heat Transfer of Foods 230
4 Applications of Infrared Radiation in Food Processing 230
4.1 Traditional Applications for Foods 230
4.1.1 Infrared Radiation Drying 230
4.1.2 Infrared Radiation Pasteurization 231
4.1.3 Infrared Radiation Grilling, Broiling, and Roasting 231
4.1.4 Infrared Radiation Blanching 231
4.1.5 Infrared Radiation Baking 235
4.1.6 Infrared Radiation Cooking 235
4.2 Rough Rice Drying 235
4.3 Fruit and Vegetable Peeling 236
4.4 Disinfestation and Pest Management 236
4.5 Surface Disinfection in the Food Industry 238
5 Integrated Heating Technologies 238
5.1 Infrared Radiation and Convective Heating 239
5.2 Infrared Radiation and Microwave Heating 240
5.3 Infrared Radiation and Freeze-Drying 241
5.4 Infrared Radiation and Vacuum Drying 241
6 Mathematical Modeling and Simulations 242
6.1 Basics of Computer Simulations of Infrared Radiation Processes 242
6.1.1 Moisture Transfer 243
6.1.2 Heat Transfer 243
6.1.3 Boundary Conditions 243
6.2 Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling of the Infrared Radiation Heating of Foods 244
6.3 Computer Simulations of Novel IR Heating Applications of Foods 244
7 Future Research to Enhance Practical Applications of Infrared Heating 247
8 Conclusions and Future Outlook 247
References 248
10 Microwaves 254
Rifna E. Jerome and Madhuresh Dwivedi
1 Introduction 254
2 Microwave Heating Mechanism and Principle 256
2.1 Dielectric Properties of Food Product 256
2.2 Factors Affecting Microwave Heating 259
2.2.1 Moisture Content and Temperature Dependency 259
2.2.2 Effect of Composition of Food Product 259
2.2.3 Effect of Microwave Frequency 260
2.2.4 Product Parameters 260
2.3 Non-uniformity in Temperature Distribution 260
3 Microwave Application in Food Industries 261
3.1 Microwave-Assisted Cooking and Baking 261
3.2 Microwave-assisted Drying 262
3.3 Microwave-Assisted Blanching 263
3.4 Microwave-Assisted Microbial Inactivation 263
3.5 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 264
4 Safety of Food Processed in Microwave for Consumers 265
5 Merits and De-merits of Microwave Heating Applications 265
6 Conclusion and Outlook 266
References 266
11 Radio Frequency 272
Shunshan Jiao, Eva Salazar, and Shaojin Wang
1 Introduction 272
2 Principle of RF Heating 273
2.1 Dielectric Properties 273
2.2 Governing Equation 274
2.3 Penetration Depth 275
3 Applications of RF Heating in Food Processing 275
3.1 Thawing 275
3.2 Drying 277
3.3 Disinfestation 279
3.3.1 For Fresh Fruits 279
3.3.2 For Grains 281
3.3.3 For Dried Fruits and Nuts 282
3.4 Microbial Inactivation 283
3.4.1 For Fruits and Vegetables 283
3.4.2 For Meat, Poultry Dairy, and Aquatic Products 283
3.4.3 For Grains, Nuts, and Spices 284
3.5 Enzyme Inactivation 285
3.5.1 Blanching 285
3.5.2 Stabilization 287
4 Conclusions and Future Outlook 288
References 289
12 Infrared Spectroscopy 298
Daniel Cozzolino
1 Introduction 298
2 The Electromagnetic Radiation 299
3 Sample Presentation 301
4 Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy - Instrumentation 302
5 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy - Instrumentation 303
6 Portability (Handheld Instruments) 304
7 Hyperspectral and Multispectral Image 304
8 Conclusions and Outlook 306
Acknowledgments 307
Conflict of Interest 307
References 307
13 Raman Spectroscopy 310
Dana Alina Magdas and Camelia Berghian-Grosan
1 Introduction 310
2 Raman Applications in Food and Beverages Studies 311
2.1 Honey 311
2.2 Edible Oils 315
2.3 Wines 321
2.4 Fruit Spirits 325
3 Conclusions and Future 328
Contribution Statement 329
Acknowledgments 329
Conflict of Interest 329
References 329
14 Visible Light Imaging 337
Maimunah Mohd Ali and Norhashila Hashim
1 Introduction 337
2 Principle of Visible Light Imaging 338
2.1 Development and Instrumentation 338
2.2 Hardware-Orientated Color System 339
2.3 Image Processing and Analysis 340
3 Applications of Visible Light Imaging in Food 341
3.1 Fruits and Vegetables 341
3.2 Meat, Fish, and Poultry 344
3.3 Nuts, Grains, and Dairy Products 347
3.4 Fats and Oils 349
3.5 Processed Foods 351
4 Advantages and Limitations 353
5 Future Trends 354
6 Conclusions and Outlook 355
Acknowledgment 356
Conflict of Interest 356
References 356
15 Hyperspectral Imaging 363
Antoni Femenias and Sonia Marín
1 Introduction 363
2 Fundamentals of the Hyperspectral Imaging 364
3 Image Calibration 366
4 Spectral Pre-processing 367
5 Model Calibration 367
6 Characteristic Wavelengths Extraction 369
7 Model Validation 369
8 Application of HSI for Plant Products Quality Assessment 370
8.1 Discrimination According to Quality Parameters 371
8.2 Quantification of Quality Parameters 374
9 Application of HSI for Safety Assessment in Fruits and Vegetables 376
10 Application of HSI for Microbiological Quality and Safety Assessment in Cereals, Nuts, and Dried Fruits 377
10.1 Assessment of Fungal Damage 377
10.2 Assessment of Mycotoxin Contamination 379
10.2.1 Aflatoxins 379
10.2.2 Fusarium Toxins 382
11 Conclusions and Future Outlook 383
Acknowledgments 383
References 384
16 Future Challenges of Employing Electromagnetic Spectrum 391
Bibhuti B. Mishra and Prasad S. Variyar
1 Introduction 391
2 Challenges in gamma Irradiation Processing of Food 393
2.1 Sources of Radiation: Cobalt 60 and Cesium 137, Electron Beam, and X-ray 393
2.2 Scope for Future Research in gamma Radiation 394
2.3 Economic Considerations for Setting Up Facilities 396
3 Challenges in Using UV Light for Processing of Food 396
3.1 Design of UV Processing Equipment 397
3.2 UV for Disinfestation of Contact Surfaces in Food Processing Facilities 398
4 Challenges in Using Infrared (IR) for Processing of Food 398
4.1 Limitations of Infrared Processing 399
4.2 Selection of Infrared Emitters for Drying Applications 399
4.3 Future Scopes for IR Lamp Design Features 399
4.4 Novel IR Filament Material 400
4.5 Future of IR Drying 400
4.6 Scopes for Near-infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy in Industrial Food Processing 401
5 Challenges in Microwave Processing of Food 402
5.1 Microwave Cooking 402
5.2 Microwave Blanching 403
5.3 Microwave Pasteurization/Sterilization 403
5.4 Microwave-assisted Drying 403
5.5 Microwave-assisted Freeze Drying 404
5.6 Future of Applications of Microwave 404
6 Future Scopes for Radiofrequency Processing of Food 404
6.1 Improvement of RF-H Uniformity 405
6.2 Future Research on RF Heating Applications in Food 405
7 Current Problems and Future Prospects of Tetrahertz (THz) Technology 406
8 Regulations for Use of EM Spectrum 406
9 Conclusion and Outlook 407
References 408
Index 411
Foreword xix
Preface xxi
1 Physics of the Electromagnetic Spectrum 1
Michael Vollmer
1 Introduction 1
2 Description of Electromagnetic Waves 2
2.1 Properties of Waves 2
2.2 Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves 5
3 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves: Geometrical Versus Wave Optics 7
4 Description of Particle Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation 10
5 Exponential Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation in Matter 11
6 Microscopic Structure of Matter and Origin of EM Radiation 14
6.1 UV-VIS and Atomic Spectra 14
6.2 IR and Molecular Spectra 16
6.3 X-Rays and Excitations of Inner Electrons in Atoms 18
6.4 gamma-Rays and Nuclear Spectra 19
6.5 Blackbody Radiation: Generating UV, VIS, and IR Radiation from Hot Objects 20
6.6 Generation of Microwave and RF EM Waves 21
7 Interaction of EM Radiation with Food 23
7.1 Low Frequencies: RF and Microwaves 23
7.2 IR Radiation 24
7.3 Visible and UV Radiation 25
7.4 X-Rays and gamma-Radiation 27
7.4.1 Atomic Photo Effect 27
7.4.2 Compton Effect 28
7.4.3 Pair Generation Effect 28
7.4.4 Probabilities for Absorbing High-Energy Radiation 29
7.4.5 Consequence of Absorption of High-Energy Photons by Matter 29
8 Outlook 31
References 31
2 Dosimetry in Food Irradiation 33
Bhaskar Sanyal and Sunil K. Ghosh
1 Introduction 33
2 Fundamentals of Dosimetry 34
2.1 What is Dosimetry 35
2.2 Absorbed Dose 35
2.3 Physical Aspects of Radiation Absorption 36
2.3.1 Photoelectric Effect 36
2.3.2 Compton Scattering 36
2.3.3 Pair Production 36
2.3.4 Interaction of Charged Particles 37
3 Dosimetry Systems for Food Irradiation Application 37
3.1 Characterization of Dosimetry Systems 39
3.1.1 Calibrating the Dosimetry System 39
3.1.2 Establishing Traceability 39
3.1.3 Determining Batch Homogeneity 40
3.1.4 Determining Uncertainty in the Measured Dose Value 40
3.1.5 Understanding and Quantifying Effects of the Influencing Quantities 40
3.2 Specific Dosimetry Systems for Food Irradiation Applications 41
3.2.1 Chemical Dosimeter (Fricke and Ceric-cerous Sulphate) 41
3.2.2 Alanine Dosimeter 42
3.2.3 Radiochromic Dosimeter 42
3.3 Role of Product Density in the Absorbed Dose 43
4 Dosimetry in Food Irradiation Facility 43
4.1 Dosimetry in Radionuclide-Based Irradiation Facility 44
4.1.1 Dose Mapping Experiment 44
4.1.2 Routine Processing of Food Product 46
4.2 Dosimetry in Linear Accelerator (LINAC) Facility 46
5 Emerging Field of Dosimetry in Low-Energy Accelerator Irradiator for Surface Treatment of Food 49
6 Conclusion and Future Outlook 50
References 51
3 Gamma Irradiation 53
Xuetong Fan and Brendan A. Niemira
1 Introduction 53
2 Characteristics and Generation of gamma-rays 54
3 Compton Effect 56
4 Basic Effects on Food: Interaction of gamma-rays with Matter 57
5 Dose Unit, Dose Rate, and Dose Distribution 59
6 gamma-Ray Facility 60
7 Applications of gamma-ray Radiation in Foods 60
7.1 Improving Microbial Safety 61
7.2 Preservation of Food 63
7.3 Phytosanitary Treatment 64
7.4 Applications on Low-Moisture Foods 64
7.5 Potential Uses of gamma Irradiation for Degradation of Mycotoxin and Allergen 65
8 Factors Impacting the Efficacy of gamma-rays 66
8.1 Temperature 66
8.2 Atmosphere 66
8.3 Water Activity 67
8.4 Composition of Foods (Antioxidants) 67
9 Conclusion 67
Acknowledgments 68
References 68
4 Electron Beams 74
Rajeev Bhat, Benny P. George, and Vicente M. Gómez-López
1 Introduction 74
2 Accelerator as a Source of Ionizing Radiation 76
3 Working Principle of EB Accelerator 77
4 Types of Industrial Electron Accelerators 77
5 Classification of Industrial Electron Beam (EB) Accelerators 78
6 Absorbed Dose 78
7 Radiation Dosimetry 79
7.1 Theoretical Aspect of EB Dosimetry 79
7.2 Practical Aspect of EB Dosimetry 79
7.3 Dosimetry Systems 80
7.4 Calibration of Dosimetry Systems 81
7.4.1 Performance Check of Measuring Instruments 81
7.4.2 Calibration of Routine Dosimeters 81
7.4.3 Establishing Measurement Traceability to National/International Standards 82
8 Scanning Characteristics of the Electron Beam Accelerator 82
9 Depth Dose Profile of Electron Beam 82
10 Process Validation of Industrial EB Accelerator 83
10.1 Installation Qualification (IQ) 84
10.2 Operational Qualification (OQ) 85
10.3 Performance Qualification (PQ) 85
10.4 Routine Monitoring 86
11 EB Irradiation in Food Applications 86
11.1 Mechanism 93
12 Legislations on Electron Beams Application 93
13 Conclusions and Future Outlook 96
Acknowledgements 97
Conflict of Interest Statement 97
References 97
5 X-Rays 105
Francesco E. Ricciardi, Amalia Conte, and Matteo A. Del Nobile
1 Introduction 105
1.1 Thermal and Non-thermal Technologies 105
1.2 Irradiation Technology 107
1.3 X-Rays 109
2 Mechanism of Action of X-Rays 109
3 Case Study 111
3.1 Seafood Products 111
3.2 Fresh and Dried Fruit 115
3.3 Dairy Products 116
3.4 Meat-Based Foods 118
4 Effects of X-Rays on Packaging 119
5 Regulation of X-Ray Irradiation 120
6 Conclusion and Future Outlook 122
References 122
6 Ultraviolet Light 128
Sandra N. Guerrero, Mariana Ferrario, Marcela Schenk, Daniela Fenoglio, and Antonella Andreone
1 Introduction 128
2 Characterization of UV-C Dose 130
3 Rational Use of the Hurdle Approach in the Design of Food Preservation Technologies 134
3.1 UV-C light-based Hurdle Combinations 136
3.1.1 Heat 136
3.1.2 UV-C Combined with Other Novel Technologies 153
3.1.3 UV-C Combined with the Addition of Natural Antimicrobials 162
3.1.4 UV-C Combined with Sanitizers 164
4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 170
Acknowledgments 171
References 171
7 Visible Light 181
Laura M. Hinds, Mysore L. Bhavya, Colm P. O'Donnell, and Brijesh K. Tiwari
1 Introduction 181
2 Sources 182
3 Quantifying Light Treatment 183
4 Applications of Visible Light in the Food Industry 184
4.1 Postharvest Handling 184
4.2 Food Safety 186
5 Challenges and Limitations 194
6 Conclusion 194
References 194
8 Pulsed Light 200
Vicente M. Gómez-López, Rajeev Bhat, and José A. Pellicer
1 Introduction 200
2 Pulse Light as a Technology Based on the Electromagnetic Spectrum 201
3 Photochemistry and Photophysics Laws 202
4 Factors Affecting Efficacy 203
5 Pulsed Light Systems 204
6 Effect on Microorganisms 205
6.1 Action Spectrum 205
6.2 Inactivation Mechanism 205
6.3 Photoreactivation 206
6.4 Sublethal Injury 207
6.5 Viable but Non-culturable State 207
7 Inactivation of Enzymes 207
8 Inactivation of Allergens 208
9 Effect on Lipids 209
10 Effect on Health-Related Compounds 209
11 Effect on Vitamin D 210
12 Effect on Pesticides 210
13 Energy Efficiency 211
14 Legislations (Regulations and Safety) of Pulsed Light 211
15 Conclusions and Future Outlook 212
Conflict of Interest Statement 212
References 212
9 Infrared Radiation 220
Yvan Llave and Noboru Sakai
1 Introduction 220
2 Fundamentals and Theory of Infrared Radiation 221
2.1 Principles of Infrared Radiation Heating 221
2.1.1 Infrared Wavelength 221
2.1.2 Basics Laws of Infrared Radiation 222
2.2 Characteristics of Thermal Radiation 224
2.2.1 Types of Infrared Radiation 224
2.2.2 Heat Generation 224
2.2.3 Sources of Infrared Heating 224
2.3 Special Features of Infrared Radiation 226
2.3.1 Factors Related to the Penetration of IR 226
2.3.2 Advantages of IR Processing 226
2.3.3 Limitations of Infrared Radiation Processing 227
2.4 Interaction of Infrared Radiation with Food 227
2.4.1 Fundamentals of Interaction with Foods 227
2.4.2 Selective Infrared Radiation Absorption of Foods 228
3 Infrared Radiative Properties of Food Materials 229
3.1 Attenuation of Radiation 229
3.2 Properties Related to the Radiative Heat Transfer of Foods 230
4 Applications of Infrared Radiation in Food Processing 230
4.1 Traditional Applications for Foods 230
4.1.1 Infrared Radiation Drying 230
4.1.2 Infrared Radiation Pasteurization 231
4.1.3 Infrared Radiation Grilling, Broiling, and Roasting 231
4.1.4 Infrared Radiation Blanching 231
4.1.5 Infrared Radiation Baking 235
4.1.6 Infrared Radiation Cooking 235
4.2 Rough Rice Drying 235
4.3 Fruit and Vegetable Peeling 236
4.4 Disinfestation and Pest Management 236
4.5 Surface Disinfection in the Food Industry 238
5 Integrated Heating Technologies 238
5.1 Infrared Radiation and Convective Heating 239
5.2 Infrared Radiation and Microwave Heating 240
5.3 Infrared Radiation and Freeze-Drying 241
5.4 Infrared Radiation and Vacuum Drying 241
6 Mathematical Modeling and Simulations 242
6.1 Basics of Computer Simulations of Infrared Radiation Processes 242
6.1.1 Moisture Transfer 243
6.1.2 Heat Transfer 243
6.1.3 Boundary Conditions 243
6.2 Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling of the Infrared Radiation Heating of Foods 244
6.3 Computer Simulations of Novel IR Heating Applications of Foods 244
7 Future Research to Enhance Practical Applications of Infrared Heating 247
8 Conclusions and Future Outlook 247
References 248
10 Microwaves 254
Rifna E. Jerome and Madhuresh Dwivedi
1 Introduction 254
2 Microwave Heating Mechanism and Principle 256
2.1 Dielectric Properties of Food Product 256
2.2 Factors Affecting Microwave Heating 259
2.2.1 Moisture Content and Temperature Dependency 259
2.2.2 Effect of Composition of Food Product 259
2.2.3 Effect of Microwave Frequency 260
2.2.4 Product Parameters 260
2.3 Non-uniformity in Temperature Distribution 260
3 Microwave Application in Food Industries 261
3.1 Microwave-Assisted Cooking and Baking 261
3.2 Microwave-assisted Drying 262
3.3 Microwave-Assisted Blanching 263
3.4 Microwave-Assisted Microbial Inactivation 263
3.5 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 264
4 Safety of Food Processed in Microwave for Consumers 265
5 Merits and De-merits of Microwave Heating Applications 265
6 Conclusion and Outlook 266
References 266
11 Radio Frequency 272
Shunshan Jiao, Eva Salazar, and Shaojin Wang
1 Introduction 272
2 Principle of RF Heating 273
2.1 Dielectric Properties 273
2.2 Governing Equation 274
2.3 Penetration Depth 275
3 Applications of RF Heating in Food Processing 275
3.1 Thawing 275
3.2 Drying 277
3.3 Disinfestation 279
3.3.1 For Fresh Fruits 279
3.3.2 For Grains 281
3.3.3 For Dried Fruits and Nuts 282
3.4 Microbial Inactivation 283
3.4.1 For Fruits and Vegetables 283
3.4.2 For Meat, Poultry Dairy, and Aquatic Products 283
3.4.3 For Grains, Nuts, and Spices 284
3.5 Enzyme Inactivation 285
3.5.1 Blanching 285
3.5.2 Stabilization 287
4 Conclusions and Future Outlook 288
References 289
12 Infrared Spectroscopy 298
Daniel Cozzolino
1 Introduction 298
2 The Electromagnetic Radiation 299
3 Sample Presentation 301
4 Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy - Instrumentation 302
5 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy - Instrumentation 303
6 Portability (Handheld Instruments) 304
7 Hyperspectral and Multispectral Image 304
8 Conclusions and Outlook 306
Acknowledgments 307
Conflict of Interest 307
References 307
13 Raman Spectroscopy 310
Dana Alina Magdas and Camelia Berghian-Grosan
1 Introduction 310
2 Raman Applications in Food and Beverages Studies 311
2.1 Honey 311
2.2 Edible Oils 315
2.3 Wines 321
2.4 Fruit Spirits 325
3 Conclusions and Future 328
Contribution Statement 329
Acknowledgments 329
Conflict of Interest 329
References 329
14 Visible Light Imaging 337
Maimunah Mohd Ali and Norhashila Hashim
1 Introduction 337
2 Principle of Visible Light Imaging 338
2.1 Development and Instrumentation 338
2.2 Hardware-Orientated Color System 339
2.3 Image Processing and Analysis 340
3 Applications of Visible Light Imaging in Food 341
3.1 Fruits and Vegetables 341
3.2 Meat, Fish, and Poultry 344
3.3 Nuts, Grains, and Dairy Products 347
3.4 Fats and Oils 349
3.5 Processed Foods 351
4 Advantages and Limitations 353
5 Future Trends 354
6 Conclusions and Outlook 355
Acknowledgment 356
Conflict of Interest 356
References 356
15 Hyperspectral Imaging 363
Antoni Femenias and Sonia Marín
1 Introduction 363
2 Fundamentals of the Hyperspectral Imaging 364
3 Image Calibration 366
4 Spectral Pre-processing 367
5 Model Calibration 367
6 Characteristic Wavelengths Extraction 369
7 Model Validation 369
8 Application of HSI for Plant Products Quality Assessment 370
8.1 Discrimination According to Quality Parameters 371
8.2 Quantification of Quality Parameters 374
9 Application of HSI for Safety Assessment in Fruits and Vegetables 376
10 Application of HSI for Microbiological Quality and Safety Assessment in Cereals, Nuts, and Dried Fruits 377
10.1 Assessment of Fungal Damage 377
10.2 Assessment of Mycotoxin Contamination 379
10.2.1 Aflatoxins 379
10.2.2 Fusarium Toxins 382
11 Conclusions and Future Outlook 383
Acknowledgments 383
References 384
16 Future Challenges of Employing Electromagnetic Spectrum 391
Bibhuti B. Mishra and Prasad S. Variyar
1 Introduction 391
2 Challenges in gamma Irradiation Processing of Food 393
2.1 Sources of Radiation: Cobalt 60 and Cesium 137, Electron Beam, and X-ray 393
2.2 Scope for Future Research in gamma Radiation 394
2.3 Economic Considerations for Setting Up Facilities 396
3 Challenges in Using UV Light for Processing of Food 396
3.1 Design of UV Processing Equipment 397
3.2 UV for Disinfestation of Contact Surfaces in Food Processing Facilities 398
4 Challenges in Using Infrared (IR) for Processing of Food 398
4.1 Limitations of Infrared Processing 399
4.2 Selection of Infrared Emitters for Drying Applications 399
4.3 Future Scopes for IR Lamp Design Features 399
4.4 Novel IR Filament Material 400
4.5 Future of IR Drying 400
4.6 Scopes for Near-infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy in Industrial Food Processing 401
5 Challenges in Microwave Processing of Food 402
5.1 Microwave Cooking 402
5.2 Microwave Blanching 403
5.3 Microwave Pasteurization/Sterilization 403
5.4 Microwave-assisted Drying 403
5.5 Microwave-assisted Freeze Drying 404
5.6 Future of Applications of Microwave 404
6 Future Scopes for Radiofrequency Processing of Food 404
6.1 Improvement of RF-H Uniformity 405
6.2 Future Research on RF Heating Applications in Food 405
7 Current Problems and Future Prospects of Tetrahertz (THz) Technology 406
8 Regulations for Use of EM Spectrum 406
9 Conclusion and Outlook 407
References 408
Index 411
About the Editors
Vicente M. Gómez-López is Professor and Senior Scientist at the Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia (UCAM), Murcia, Spain.
Rajeev Bhat is Professor and ERA-Chair Holder in Food By-products Valorization Technologies (VALORTECH) at the Estonian University of Life Sciences (EMÜ), Tartu, Estonia.
Vicente M. Gómez-López is Professor and Senior Scientist at the Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia (UCAM), Murcia, Spain.
Rajeev Bhat is Professor and ERA-Chair Holder in Food By-products Valorization Technologies (VALORTECH) at the Estonian University of Life Sciences (EMÜ), Tartu, Estonia.
