What is Meaning?
Fundamentals of Formal Semantics
Fundamentals of Linguistics
What is Meaning? Fundamentals of Formal Semantics is a
concise introduction to the field of semantics as it is actually
practiced. Through simple examples, pictures, and metaphors, Paul
Portner presents the field's key ideas about how language
works.
* Explains the fundamental ideas and some of the most significant
results of modern semantic theory
* Combines foundational discussion with simplified analyses of
complex phenomena to provide readers with a sense of the
fascination to be found in the details of the human language
* Includes exercises and thought-provoking questions to
facilitate learning
Acknowledgments x
1 The Fundamental Question 1
1.1 What is a Meaning? 3
1.2 Meanings are Out in the World 11
1.3 We should Think of the Meaning of Sentences in Terms of
Truth-Conditions 12
2 Putting a Meaning Together from Pieces 28
2.1 Names Refer 29
2.2 Incomplete Propositions 30
2.3 Prediction is Saturation 31
2.4 Compositionality 33
2.5 Syntax and Semantics 34
3 More about Predicates 40
3.1 Other Types of Predicates: Adjectives, Predicate Nominals
40
3.2 Transitive Verbs 44
3.3 Relative Clauses 45
3.4 Topicalization 48
3.5 Sub-atomic Semantics 49
3.6 Modeling Properties with Sets and Functions 54
4 Modifiers 61
4.1 Adjective + N Combination 61
4.2 More Issues with Adjectives 65
4.3 Relative Clauses as Modifier 68
4.4 Adverbs 69
4.5 The Form of Meanings and their World-describing Content
74
5 Complexities of Referring Expressions 78
5.1 Definite NPs 78
5.2 Some Subtleties 80
5.3 A Bit about Indefinite NPs 83
5.4 Theories of Reference 84
5.5 Plurals and Mass Terms 95
5.6 Kinds 99
5.7 Pronouns and Anaphora 102
6 Quantifiers 112
6.1 Generalized Quantifiers: Predicate of Predicates, or Sets of
Sets 113
6.2 NP Conjunction 120
6.3 Negative Polarity Items 122
6.4 Quantifiers in Object Position 127
7 Extensional vs. Intensional Contexts 132
8 Tense, Aspect, and Modality 137
8.1 Tense 138
8.2 Aspect 146
8.3 Modality 154
9 Propositional Attitudes 161
9.1 A Possible Worlds Semantics for Belief and Desire 162
9.2 Logical Consequences of the Modal Analysis of Propositional
Attitude Verbs 164
9.3 Two foundational Problems: Coreferential Terms and Logical
Truths 166
9.4 Structure and Meaning 170
9.5 Or, Have We Reached the Limits of Semantics? 174
10 The Pragmatics of What's Given 176
10.1 Indexicality and Deixis 177
10.2 Presupposition 178
10.3 Speech Acts 190
10.4 Focus and Topic 195
11 The Pragmatics of Inference 199
11.1 Properties Implicature 203
12 Formal Semantics Today 206
12.1 Diversity within Formal Semantics 206
12.2 Relationships with Other Varieties of Semantics 213
12.3 Relationships with Other Fields 214
Appendix: Answers to Selected Exercises 218
References 223
Index 230
1 The Fundamental Question 1
1.1 What is a Meaning? 3
1.2 Meanings are Out in the World 11
1.3 We should Think of the Meaning of Sentences in Terms of
Truth-Conditions 12
2 Putting a Meaning Together from Pieces 28
2.1 Names Refer 29
2.2 Incomplete Propositions 30
2.3 Prediction is Saturation 31
2.4 Compositionality 33
2.5 Syntax and Semantics 34
3 More about Predicates 40
3.1 Other Types of Predicates: Adjectives, Predicate Nominals
40
3.2 Transitive Verbs 44
3.3 Relative Clauses 45
3.4 Topicalization 48
3.5 Sub-atomic Semantics 49
3.6 Modeling Properties with Sets and Functions 54
4 Modifiers 61
4.1 Adjective + N Combination 61
4.2 More Issues with Adjectives 65
4.3 Relative Clauses as Modifier 68
4.4 Adverbs 69
4.5 The Form of Meanings and their World-describing Content
74
5 Complexities of Referring Expressions 78
5.1 Definite NPs 78
5.2 Some Subtleties 80
5.3 A Bit about Indefinite NPs 83
5.4 Theories of Reference 84
5.5 Plurals and Mass Terms 95
5.6 Kinds 99
5.7 Pronouns and Anaphora 102
6 Quantifiers 112
6.1 Generalized Quantifiers: Predicate of Predicates, or Sets of
Sets 113
6.2 NP Conjunction 120
6.3 Negative Polarity Items 122
6.4 Quantifiers in Object Position 127
7 Extensional vs. Intensional Contexts 132
8 Tense, Aspect, and Modality 137
8.1 Tense 138
8.2 Aspect 146
8.3 Modality 154
9 Propositional Attitudes 161
9.1 A Possible Worlds Semantics for Belief and Desire 162
9.2 Logical Consequences of the Modal Analysis of Propositional
Attitude Verbs 164
9.3 Two foundational Problems: Coreferential Terms and Logical
Truths 166
9.4 Structure and Meaning 170
9.5 Or, Have We Reached the Limits of Semantics? 174
10 The Pragmatics of What's Given 176
10.1 Indexicality and Deixis 177
10.2 Presupposition 178
10.3 Speech Acts 190
10.4 Focus and Topic 195
11 The Pragmatics of Inference 199
11.1 Properties Implicature 203
12 Formal Semantics Today 206
12.1 Diversity within Formal Semantics 206
12.2 Relationships with Other Varieties of Semantics 213
12.3 Relationships with Other Fields 214
Appendix: Answers to Selected Exercises 218
References 223
Index 230
"An excellent book for advanced undergraduates and beginning graduate students. Portner's approachable, yet serious, presentation gives the reader a firm understanding of the breadth and depth of the science of natural language meaning." Kai von Fintel, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Paul H. Portner is Associate Professor of Linguistics and Director of the Interdisciplinary Program in Cognitive Science at Georgetown University. He is co-editor of Formal Semantics: The Essential Readings (with Barbara H. Partee, Blackwell, 2002) as well as the author of numerous articles on topics such as mood and modality, tense and aspect, and the syntax/semantics interface.