Biodiesel Technology and Applications
1. Auflage August 2021
512 Seiten, Hardcover
Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBN:
978-1-119-72464-3
John Wiley & Sons
Weitere Versionen
Dieses Werk vermittelt einen umfassenden Überblick über zahlreiche Themen im Zusammenhang mit der Biodiesel-Technologie und verwandten Anwendungen. Die einzelnen Kapitel beschäftigen sich mit der Geschichte, den Eigenschaften, Rohstoffen, Herstellungsmethoden, Parametern, Formulierungen und Reaktoren, der Katalyse, Transformation, Analyse, In-situ-Spektroskopie sowie mit den zentralen Problemen und Anwendungen der Biodiesel-Technologie. Behandelt werden darüber hinaus die Themen Biodiesel-Verfahren, Extraktionsstrategien, Bioabfallverwertung, oleochemische Rohstoffe, nicht-essbare Rohstoffe, heterogene Katalysatoren sowie Patente und Fallstudien. Dabei werden die Fortschritte, Herausforderungen, künftigen Richtungen und die neuesten kommerziellen Biodiesel-Technologien im Detail betrachtet. Dieses Werk ist ein wertvoller Leitfaden für Fachleute, Dozenten, Studenten, Chemieingenieure, Biotechnologen und Umweltschützer, die sich mit der Forschung und Entwicklung von Biodiesel-Technologie befassen.
Preface xvii
1 Biocatalytic Processes for Biodiesel Production 1
Ubaid Mehmood, Faizan Muneer, Muhammad Riaz, Saba Sarfraz and Habibullah Nadeem
1.1 Introduction and Background 2
1.2 Importance of Biodiesel Over Conventional Diesel Fuel 3
1.3 Substrates for Biodiesel Production 4
1.4 Methods in Biodiesel Production 6
1.5 Types of Catalysts Involved in Biodiesel Production 7
1.5.1 Chemical Homogenous Catalysts 7
1.5.2 Solid Heterogeneous Catalysts 8
1.5.3 Biocatalysts 8
1.6 Factors Affecting Enzymatic Transesterification Reaction 8
1.6.1 Effect of Water in Enzyme Catalyzed Transesterification 9
1.6.2 Effect of Bioreactor 10
1.6.3 Effect of Acyl Acceptor on Enzymatic Production of Biodiesel 10
1.6.4 Effect of Temperature on Enzymatic Biodiesel Production 14
1.6.5 Effect of Glycerol on Enzymatic Biodiesel Production 14
1.6.6 Effect of Solvent on Biodiesel Production 16
1.7 Lipases as Biocatalysts for Biodiesel Production 17
1.7.1 Mechanisms of Lipase Action 19
1.7.2 Efficient Lipase Sources for Biodiesel Producing Biocatalyst 19
1.8 Comparative Analysis of Intracellular and Extracellular Lipases for Biodiesel Production 21
1.9 Recombinant Lipases for Cost-Effective Biodiesel Production 26
1.10 Immobilization of Lipases for Better Biodiesel Production 28
1.11 Recent Strategies to Improve Biodiesel Production 31
1.11.1 Combination of Lipases 31
1.11.2 Microwave and Ultrasonic-Assisted Reaction 33
1.12 Lipase Catalyzed Reaction Modeling and Statistical Approaches for Reaction Optimization 35
1.13 Conclusion and Summary 38
References 38
2 Application of Low-Frequency Ultrasound for Intensified Biodiesel Production Process 59
Mohd Razealy Anuar, Mohamed Hussein Abdurahman, Nor Irwin Basir and Ahmad Zuhairi Abdullah
2.1 Current Fossil Fuel Scenario 60
2.2 Biodiesel 60
2.3 Transesterification 61
2.4 Challenges for Improved Biodiesel Production 62
2.5 Homogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production 63
2.6 Heterogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production 64
2.7 Immiscibility of the Reactants 65
2.8 Ultrasound-Assisted Biodiesel Production Process 66
2.8.1 Fundamental Aspects of the Process 66
2.8.2 Homogeneously Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System 69
2.8.3 Heterogeneously Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System 72
2.8.3.1 Heterogeneously Acid Catalyzed System 72
2.8.3.2 Heterogeneous Based Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System 74
2.8.3.3 Influence of Reaction Parameters 78
2.9 Conclusions 79
Acknowledgement 80
References 80
3 Application of Catalysts in Biodiesel Production 85
Anilkumar R. Gupta and Virendra K. Rathod
3.1 Introduction 85
3.2 Homogeneous Catalysis for the Biodiesel Production 89
3.2.1 Homogeneous Acid Catalyst 89
3.2.2 Homogeneous-Base Catalyst 93
3.3 Heterogeneous Catalyst 96
3.3.1 Heterogeneous Acid Catalyst 97
3.3.2 Heterogeneous-Base Catalyst 106
3.4 Biocatalysts 115
3.5 Conclusion 119
References 124
4 Hydrogenolysis as a Means of Valorization of Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol: A Review 137
Manjoro T.T., Adeniyi A. and Mbaya R.K.K.
4.1 Introduction 138
4.2 Ways of Valorization of Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol 139
4.2.1 Catalytic Conversion of Glycerol Into Value-Added Commodities 140
4.2.1.1 Catalytic Oxidation of Glycerol 140
4.2.1.2 Catalytic Dehydration of Glycerol 143
4.2.1.3 Pyrolysis of Bioglycerol 144
4.2.1.4 Glycerol Transesterification 145
4.2.1.5 Glycerol Direct Carboxylation 146
4.3 Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol 147
4.3.1 Definition of Hydrogenolysis 147
4.3.2 Catalytic Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol 148
4.3.3 Product Spectrum from Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol 148
4.3.4 Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol to 1,2-PDO (Propylene Glycol): Reaction Systems Overview 149
4.3.5 Catalyst Selection 151
4.3.6 Reaction Conditions That Influence the Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol to 1,2-PDO 153
4.3.6.1 Effect of Reaction Temperature 153
4.3.6.2 Effect of H2 Pressure 154
4.3.6.3 Effect of Initial Water Concentration 155
4.3.6.4 Effect of Reaction Time 156
4.3.6.5 Effect of Catalyst Weight 156
4.3.6.6 Proposed Reaction Mechanisms for Glycerol Hydrogenolysis to Produce 1,2-PDO 157
4.4 Conclusion 159
References 159
5 Current Status, Synthesis, and Characterization of Biodiesel 167
Akshay Garg, Gaurav Dwivedi, Prashant Baredar and Siddharth Jain
5.1 Introduction 167
5.2 Status of Biodiesel in India 169
5.3 Biodiesel Production in India 169
5.3.1 Feedstocks Popular in India 169
5.3.1.1 Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) Oil 171
5.3.1.2 Pongamia Oil 171
5.3.1.3 Mahua Oil 171
5.3.1.4 Neem Oil 171
5.3.1.5 Linseed Oil 171
5.3.1.6 Rubber Seed Oil 172
5.3.1.7 Tobacco Oil 172
5.3.1.8 Castor 172
5.3.1.9 Waste Cooking Oil 172
5.3.1.10 Algae Oil 172
5.3.2 Advantages of Non-Edible Oils 173
5.3.3 Modification Techniques 173
5.3.3.1 Blending 173
5.3.3.2 Micro-Emulsification 173
5.3.3.3 Cracking 174
5.3.3.4 Transesterification 174
5.3.4 Biodiesel Production Methodology 174
5.3.4.1 Catalytic Transesterification 174
5.3.4.2 Non-Catalytic Transesterification 178
5.3.5 Optimization Methodology for Biodiesel 179
5.3.5.1 Central Composite Design Technique 179
5.3.5.2 Box Behnken Technique 179
5.4 Properties of Biodiesel 180
5.5 Analytical Methods 181
5.5.1 Titration 181
5.5.2 Chromatic Methods 181
5.5.2.1 Gas Chromatography 183
5.5.2.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 184
5.5.3 Spectroscopic Methods 184
5.5.3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 184
5.5.3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 185
5.5.4 Rancimat Method 185
5.5.5 Viscometry 186
5.6 Conclusion 186
References 187
6 Commercial Technologies for Biodiesel Production 195
Chikati Roick, Leonard Okonye, Nkazi Diankanua and Gorimbo Joshua
Abbreviation 196
6.1 Introduction 196
6.2 Biodiesel Production 197
6.3 Technologies Used for Biodiesel Production 198
6.3.1 Chemical Reaction (Transesterification) 199
6.3.2 Thermochemical Conversion 199
6.3.3 Biomechanical Conversion 201
6.3.4 Direct Combustion 201
6.4 Other Technologies in Use for Biodiesel Production 201
6.5 Feedstock Requirement 203
6.6 Some Problems Facing Commercialization of Biodiesel in Africa 203
6.7 Case Studies/Current Status and Future Potential 204
6.8 Conclusions 207
Acknowledgments 208
References 208
7 A Global Scenario of Sustainable Technologies and Progress in a Biodiesel Production 215
M. B. Kumbhar, P. E. Lokhande,, U. S. Chavan and V.G. Salunkhe
7.1 Introduction 216
7.2 Current Status of Feedstock for Biodiesel Production Technology 218
7.3 Scenario of Biodiesel in Combustion Engine 222
7.4 Biodiesel Production Technologies 223
7.4.1 Direct Blending 223
7.4.2 Pyrolysis 224
7.4.3 Microemulsification 225
7.4.4 Transesterification 226
7.5 Microwave-Mediated Transesterification 227
7.6 Ultrasound-Mediated Transesterification 229
7.7 Catalysis in Biodiesel Production 230
7.7.1 Homogeneous Catalysts 230
7.7.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts 231
7.7.3 Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts 232
7.7.4 Supercritical Fluids 232
7.7.5 Biocatalysts 232
7.8 The Concept of Biorefinery 234
7.9 Summary and Outlook 236
7.10 Conclusion 237
References 237
8 Biodiesel Production Technologies 241
Moina Athar and Sadaf Zaidi
8.1 Introduction 242
8.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks 242
8.2.1 Selection of Feedstocks 243
8.3 Biodiesel Production Technologies 248
8.3.1 Pyrolysis 248
8.3.2 Dilution 249
8.3.3 Micro-Emulsion 249
8.3.4 Transesterification 249
8.3.4.1 Homogeneously Catalyzed Transesterification Processes 250
8.3.4.2 Heterogeneously Catalyzed Transesterification Processes 252
8.3.4.3 Enzymatic Catalyzed Transesterification Processes 252
8.4 Intensification Techniques for Biodiesel Production 253
8.4.1 Supercritical Alcohol Method 253
8.4.2 Microwave Heating 253
8.4.3 Ultrasonic Irradiation 255
8.4.4 Co-Solvent Method 256
8.5 Other Techniques of Biodiesel Production 256
References 257
9 Methods for Biodiesel Production 267
M.Gul, M.A. Mujtaba, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam and N.W.M. Zulkifli
9.1 Selection of Feedstock for Biodiesel 267
9.1.1 First-Generation Feedstock 268
9.1.2 Second-Generation Feedstock 268
9.1.3 Third-Generation Feedstock 269
9.2 Methods for Biodiesel Production 269
9.2.1 Dilution With Hydrocarbons Blending 269
9.2.2 Micro-Emulsion 269
9.2.3 Pyrolysis (Thermal Cracking) 270
9.2.4 Transesterification (Alcoholysis) 271
9.2.4.1 In Situ Transesterification (Reactive Extraction) 271
9.2.4.2 Conventional Transesterification 272
9.2.4.3 Microwave/Ultrasound-Assisted Transesterification 278
9.2.4.4 Variables Affecting Transesterification Reaction 278
References 282
10 Non-Edible Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 285
Chikati Roick, Kabir Opeyemi Otun, Nkazi Diankanua and Gorimbo Joshua
List of Abbreviations 286
10.1 Introduction 286
10.2 Reports Relevant to Global Warming and Renewable Energy 287
10.3 Biofuels as an Alternative Energy Source 288
10.3.1 First-Generation Biofuels 288
10.3.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 289
10.3.3 Third-Generation Biofuels 290
10.4 Benefits of Using Biodiesel 290
10.5 Technologies of Biodiesel Production From Non-Edible Feedstock 291
10.6 Biodiesel Production by Transesterification 292
10.7 Non-Edible Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 295
10.7.1 Non-Edible Vegetable Oils 296
10.7.2 Waste Cooking Oil 297
10.7.3 Algal Oil 298
10.7.4 Waste Animal Fat/Oil 299
10.8 Fuel Properties of Biodiesel Obtained From Non-Edible Feedstock 299
10.9 Advantages of Non-Edible Feedstocks 302
10.10 Economic Importance of Biodiesel Production 302
10.11 Conclusions 303
Acknowledgments 303
References 304
11 Oleochemical Resources for Biodiesel Production 311
Gayathri R., Ranjitha J. and Vijayalakshmi Shankar
11.1 Introduction 311
11.2 Definition of Oleochemicals 312
11.3 Oleochemical Types 313
11.4 Production of Biodiesel 315
11.5 Types of Feedstocks 317
11.5.1 Non-Edible Feedstocks 317
11.5.2 Non-Edible Vegetable Oil 317
11.5.3 Tall Oil 318
11.5.4 Waste Cooking Oils 318
11.5.5 Animal Fats 318
11.5.6 Chicken Fat 319
11.5.7 Lard 319
11.5.8 Tallow 320
11.5.9 Leather Industry Solid Waste Fat 321
11.5.10 Fish Oil 322
11.6 Uses of Oleochemicals 322
11.6.1 Polymer Applications 322
11.6.2 Application of Plant Oil as a Substitute for Petro-Diesel 323
11.6.3 Used as Surfactants 323
11.6.4 Oleochemicals Used in Pesticide 324
11.6.5 Oleochemicals Used in Spray Adjuvants and Solvents 324
11.7 Methyl Ester or Biodiesel Production 324
11.7.1 Palm Oil 326
11.7.2 Sunflower Oil 326
11.7.3 ME From AFW 327
11.8 Parameters Affecting the Yield of Biodiesel 327
11.8.1 Reaction Conditions 327
11.8.2 Catalyst 327
11.8.2.1 Alkali Catalyst 327
11.8.2.2 Acid Catalyst 329
11.8.2.3 Biocatalyst 329
11.8.2.4 Heterogeneous Catalyst 329
11.8.2.5 ME Conversion by Supercritical Method 329
11.8.3 Properties of Feedstock 330
11.8.3.1 Composition of FA 330
11.8.3.2 FFA 330
11.8.3.3 Heat 330
11.8.3.4 Presence of Unwanted Materials 330
11.8.3.5 Titer 332
11.8.4 Characteristic of Feedstock 332
11.9 Optimization of Reactions Conditions for High Yield and Quality of Biodiesel 332
11.9.1 Pre-Treatment of Feedstock 332
11.9.1.1 Elimination of Water 332
11.9.1.2 Elimination of Insoluble Impurities 332
11.9.1.3 Elimination of Unsaponifiables 333
11.9.2 Characterization and Selection of Feedstocks 333
11.9.3 Selection of Reaction Conditions 333
11.10 Oil Recovery 333
11.10.1 Alkaline Flooding Method 333
11.10.2 Additives 334
11.11 Quality Improvement of Biodiesel 334
11.11.1 Additives for Improving Combustion Ability 334
11.11.2 Additives for Enhancing the Octane Number 334
11.11.3 Additives for Improving the Stability 334
11.11.4 Additives to Enhance Cold Flow Property 334
11.11.5 Additives to Enhance Lubricity 335
11.11.6 Additives to Enhance Cetane Number 335
11.12 Conclusion 335
Abbreviations 335
References 336
12 Overview on Different Reactors for Biodiesel Production 341
V. C. Akubude, K.F. Jaiyeoba, T.F Oyewusi, E.C. Abbah, J.A. Oyedokun and V.C. Okafor
12.1 Introduction 341
12.2 Biodiesel Production Reactors 342
12.2.1 Batch Reactor 343
12.2.2 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor 344
12.2.3 Fixed Bed Reactor 346
12.2.4 Bubble Column Reactor 347
12.2.5 Reactive Distillation Column 349
12.2.6 Hybrid Catalytic Plasma Reactor 350
12.2.7 Microreactors Technology 350
12.2.8 Oscillatory Flow Reactors 353
12.2.9 Other Novel Reactors 353
12.3 Future Prospects 354
12.4 Conclusion 354
References 354
13 Patents on Biodiesel 361
Azira Abdul Razak, Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed and Darfizzi Derawi
13.1 Introduction 361
13.2 Generation of Biodiesel 362
13.3 Development of Catalyst 363
13.3.1 Homogeneous Catalyst 364
13.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst 364
13.4 Method Producing Biodiesel 365
13.4.1 Pre-Treatment Process 365
13.4.2 Direct Use and Blending of Oils 366
13.4.3 Esterification of FFA 366
13.4.4 Transesterification of TAG 367
13.4.5 Pyrolysis 368
13.5 Reactor's Technology for Biodiesel Production 369
13.5.1 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor 370
13.5.2 Fixed Bed Reactor 370
13.5.3 Micro-Mixer Reactor 371
13.6 Conclusion 372
References 372
14 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids With an Alcohol Over Acid Materials 377
J.E. Castanheiro
14.1 Introduction 377
14.2 Zeolites 378
14.3 SO3H as Catalyst 379
14.4 Metal Oxides 380
14.5 Heteropolyacids 382
14.6 Other Materials 384
14.7 Conclusions 384
References 385
15 Biodiesel Production From Non-Edible and Waste Lipid Sources 389
Opeoluwa O. Fasanya, Aishat A. Osigbesan and Onoriode P. Avbenake
15.1 Introduction 390
15.2 Non-Edible Plant-Based Oils 394
15.2.1 Jatropha curcas 394
15.2.2 Calophyllum inophyllum 397
15.2.3 Mesua ferrea 397
15.2.4 Jojoba Oil 398
15.2.5 Azadirachta indica 398
15.2.6 Rubber Seed Oil 399
15.2.7 Ricinus communis as Feedstock (Castor Oil) 402
15.2.8 Other Non-Edible Oils 403
15.3 Waste Animal Fats 404
15.4 Expired and Waste Cooking Oils 405
15.5 Algae/Microalgae 406
15.6 Insects as Biodiesel Feedstock 411
15.7 Deacidification 414
15.8 Other Technologies 414
15.9 Conclusion 415
References 415
16 Microalgae for Biodiesel Production 429
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Victoria Olaide Adenigba, Devarajan Thangadura and Mohd Imran Ahamed
16.1 Introduction 430
16.2 Physicochemical Properties of Biodiesel From Microalgae 431
16.3 Genetic Engineering/Techniques Enhancing Biodiesel Production 432
16.4 Nanotechnology in Microalgae Biodiesel Production 434
16.5 Specific Examples of Biodiesel Production From Microalgae 434
16.6 Methodology Involved in the Extraction of Algae 438
16.6.1 Chemical Solvents Extraction 439
16.6.2 Extraction by Supercritical Carbon Dioxide 439
16.6.3 Extraction Using Biochemical Techniques 439
16.6.4 Extraction Involving Direct Transesterification 440
16.6.5 Extraction Using Transesterification Techniques 440
16.7 Conclusion and Future Recommendation to Knowledge 440
References 441
17 Biodiesel Production Methods and Feedstocks 447
Setareh Heidari and David A. Wood
17.1 Introduction 448
17.2 Biofuel Classification in Terms of Origin and Technological Conversion of Raw Materials 449
17.3 Techniques Capable of Producing Biodiesel on Commercial Scales 451
17.3.1 Direct and Blending Methods With the Aim of Biodiesel Generation 452
17.3.2 Microemulsion Methods 452
17.3.3 Pyrolysis Methods 453
17.3.4 Transesterification Methods 453
17.4 Influential Parameters on Biodiesel Production 454
17.4.1 The Choice of Transesterification Catalysts 454
17.4.2 Effects of Catalyst Characteristics on Biodiesel Production Efficiency 454
17.5 Biodiesel Markets and Economic Considerations 455
17.6 Challenges Confronting Biodiesel Uptake 456
17.7 Corrosion and Quality Monitoring Issues for Biodiesel 457
17.8 Conclusions 457
References 458
18 Application of Nanoparticles for the Enhanced Production of Biodiesel 465
Muhammad Hilman Mustapha, Akhsan Kamil Azizi, Wan Nur Aini Wan Mokhtar and Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed
18.1 Introduction 465
18.2 Solid Nanoparticles 466
18.3 Nanobioparticles/Nanobiocatalyst 471
18.4 Magnetic Nanoparticles 473
18.5 How Nanoparticles Enhanced Biodiesel Production? 475
18.6 Conclusion 477
References 477
Index 481
1 Biocatalytic Processes for Biodiesel Production 1
Ubaid Mehmood, Faizan Muneer, Muhammad Riaz, Saba Sarfraz and Habibullah Nadeem
1.1 Introduction and Background 2
1.2 Importance of Biodiesel Over Conventional Diesel Fuel 3
1.3 Substrates for Biodiesel Production 4
1.4 Methods in Biodiesel Production 6
1.5 Types of Catalysts Involved in Biodiesel Production 7
1.5.1 Chemical Homogenous Catalysts 7
1.5.2 Solid Heterogeneous Catalysts 8
1.5.3 Biocatalysts 8
1.6 Factors Affecting Enzymatic Transesterification Reaction 8
1.6.1 Effect of Water in Enzyme Catalyzed Transesterification 9
1.6.2 Effect of Bioreactor 10
1.6.3 Effect of Acyl Acceptor on Enzymatic Production of Biodiesel 10
1.6.4 Effect of Temperature on Enzymatic Biodiesel Production 14
1.6.5 Effect of Glycerol on Enzymatic Biodiesel Production 14
1.6.6 Effect of Solvent on Biodiesel Production 16
1.7 Lipases as Biocatalysts for Biodiesel Production 17
1.7.1 Mechanisms of Lipase Action 19
1.7.2 Efficient Lipase Sources for Biodiesel Producing Biocatalyst 19
1.8 Comparative Analysis of Intracellular and Extracellular Lipases for Biodiesel Production 21
1.9 Recombinant Lipases for Cost-Effective Biodiesel Production 26
1.10 Immobilization of Lipases for Better Biodiesel Production 28
1.11 Recent Strategies to Improve Biodiesel Production 31
1.11.1 Combination of Lipases 31
1.11.2 Microwave and Ultrasonic-Assisted Reaction 33
1.12 Lipase Catalyzed Reaction Modeling and Statistical Approaches for Reaction Optimization 35
1.13 Conclusion and Summary 38
References 38
2 Application of Low-Frequency Ultrasound for Intensified Biodiesel Production Process 59
Mohd Razealy Anuar, Mohamed Hussein Abdurahman, Nor Irwin Basir and Ahmad Zuhairi Abdullah
2.1 Current Fossil Fuel Scenario 60
2.2 Biodiesel 60
2.3 Transesterification 61
2.4 Challenges for Improved Biodiesel Production 62
2.5 Homogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production 63
2.6 Heterogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production 64
2.7 Immiscibility of the Reactants 65
2.8 Ultrasound-Assisted Biodiesel Production Process 66
2.8.1 Fundamental Aspects of the Process 66
2.8.2 Homogeneously Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System 69
2.8.3 Heterogeneously Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System 72
2.8.3.1 Heterogeneously Acid Catalyzed System 72
2.8.3.2 Heterogeneous Based Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System 74
2.8.3.3 Influence of Reaction Parameters 78
2.9 Conclusions 79
Acknowledgement 80
References 80
3 Application of Catalysts in Biodiesel Production 85
Anilkumar R. Gupta and Virendra K. Rathod
3.1 Introduction 85
3.2 Homogeneous Catalysis for the Biodiesel Production 89
3.2.1 Homogeneous Acid Catalyst 89
3.2.2 Homogeneous-Base Catalyst 93
3.3 Heterogeneous Catalyst 96
3.3.1 Heterogeneous Acid Catalyst 97
3.3.2 Heterogeneous-Base Catalyst 106
3.4 Biocatalysts 115
3.5 Conclusion 119
References 124
4 Hydrogenolysis as a Means of Valorization of Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol: A Review 137
Manjoro T.T., Adeniyi A. and Mbaya R.K.K.
4.1 Introduction 138
4.2 Ways of Valorization of Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol 139
4.2.1 Catalytic Conversion of Glycerol Into Value-Added Commodities 140
4.2.1.1 Catalytic Oxidation of Glycerol 140
4.2.1.2 Catalytic Dehydration of Glycerol 143
4.2.1.3 Pyrolysis of Bioglycerol 144
4.2.1.4 Glycerol Transesterification 145
4.2.1.5 Glycerol Direct Carboxylation 146
4.3 Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol 147
4.3.1 Definition of Hydrogenolysis 147
4.3.2 Catalytic Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol 148
4.3.3 Product Spectrum from Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol 148
4.3.4 Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol to 1,2-PDO (Propylene Glycol): Reaction Systems Overview 149
4.3.5 Catalyst Selection 151
4.3.6 Reaction Conditions That Influence the Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol to 1,2-PDO 153
4.3.6.1 Effect of Reaction Temperature 153
4.3.6.2 Effect of H2 Pressure 154
4.3.6.3 Effect of Initial Water Concentration 155
4.3.6.4 Effect of Reaction Time 156
4.3.6.5 Effect of Catalyst Weight 156
4.3.6.6 Proposed Reaction Mechanisms for Glycerol Hydrogenolysis to Produce 1,2-PDO 157
4.4 Conclusion 159
References 159
5 Current Status, Synthesis, and Characterization of Biodiesel 167
Akshay Garg, Gaurav Dwivedi, Prashant Baredar and Siddharth Jain
5.1 Introduction 167
5.2 Status of Biodiesel in India 169
5.3 Biodiesel Production in India 169
5.3.1 Feedstocks Popular in India 169
5.3.1.1 Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) Oil 171
5.3.1.2 Pongamia Oil 171
5.3.1.3 Mahua Oil 171
5.3.1.4 Neem Oil 171
5.3.1.5 Linseed Oil 171
5.3.1.6 Rubber Seed Oil 172
5.3.1.7 Tobacco Oil 172
5.3.1.8 Castor 172
5.3.1.9 Waste Cooking Oil 172
5.3.1.10 Algae Oil 172
5.3.2 Advantages of Non-Edible Oils 173
5.3.3 Modification Techniques 173
5.3.3.1 Blending 173
5.3.3.2 Micro-Emulsification 173
5.3.3.3 Cracking 174
5.3.3.4 Transesterification 174
5.3.4 Biodiesel Production Methodology 174
5.3.4.1 Catalytic Transesterification 174
5.3.4.2 Non-Catalytic Transesterification 178
5.3.5 Optimization Methodology for Biodiesel 179
5.3.5.1 Central Composite Design Technique 179
5.3.5.2 Box Behnken Technique 179
5.4 Properties of Biodiesel 180
5.5 Analytical Methods 181
5.5.1 Titration 181
5.5.2 Chromatic Methods 181
5.5.2.1 Gas Chromatography 183
5.5.2.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 184
5.5.3 Spectroscopic Methods 184
5.5.3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 184
5.5.3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 185
5.5.4 Rancimat Method 185
5.5.5 Viscometry 186
5.6 Conclusion 186
References 187
6 Commercial Technologies for Biodiesel Production 195
Chikati Roick, Leonard Okonye, Nkazi Diankanua and Gorimbo Joshua
Abbreviation 196
6.1 Introduction 196
6.2 Biodiesel Production 197
6.3 Technologies Used for Biodiesel Production 198
6.3.1 Chemical Reaction (Transesterification) 199
6.3.2 Thermochemical Conversion 199
6.3.3 Biomechanical Conversion 201
6.3.4 Direct Combustion 201
6.4 Other Technologies in Use for Biodiesel Production 201
6.5 Feedstock Requirement 203
6.6 Some Problems Facing Commercialization of Biodiesel in Africa 203
6.7 Case Studies/Current Status and Future Potential 204
6.8 Conclusions 207
Acknowledgments 208
References 208
7 A Global Scenario of Sustainable Technologies and Progress in a Biodiesel Production 215
M. B. Kumbhar, P. E. Lokhande,, U. S. Chavan and V.G. Salunkhe
7.1 Introduction 216
7.2 Current Status of Feedstock for Biodiesel Production Technology 218
7.3 Scenario of Biodiesel in Combustion Engine 222
7.4 Biodiesel Production Technologies 223
7.4.1 Direct Blending 223
7.4.2 Pyrolysis 224
7.4.3 Microemulsification 225
7.4.4 Transesterification 226
7.5 Microwave-Mediated Transesterification 227
7.6 Ultrasound-Mediated Transesterification 229
7.7 Catalysis in Biodiesel Production 230
7.7.1 Homogeneous Catalysts 230
7.7.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts 231
7.7.3 Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts 232
7.7.4 Supercritical Fluids 232
7.7.5 Biocatalysts 232
7.8 The Concept of Biorefinery 234
7.9 Summary and Outlook 236
7.10 Conclusion 237
References 237
8 Biodiesel Production Technologies 241
Moina Athar and Sadaf Zaidi
8.1 Introduction 242
8.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks 242
8.2.1 Selection of Feedstocks 243
8.3 Biodiesel Production Technologies 248
8.3.1 Pyrolysis 248
8.3.2 Dilution 249
8.3.3 Micro-Emulsion 249
8.3.4 Transesterification 249
8.3.4.1 Homogeneously Catalyzed Transesterification Processes 250
8.3.4.2 Heterogeneously Catalyzed Transesterification Processes 252
8.3.4.3 Enzymatic Catalyzed Transesterification Processes 252
8.4 Intensification Techniques for Biodiesel Production 253
8.4.1 Supercritical Alcohol Method 253
8.4.2 Microwave Heating 253
8.4.3 Ultrasonic Irradiation 255
8.4.4 Co-Solvent Method 256
8.5 Other Techniques of Biodiesel Production 256
References 257
9 Methods for Biodiesel Production 267
M.Gul, M.A. Mujtaba, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam and N.W.M. Zulkifli
9.1 Selection of Feedstock for Biodiesel 267
9.1.1 First-Generation Feedstock 268
9.1.2 Second-Generation Feedstock 268
9.1.3 Third-Generation Feedstock 269
9.2 Methods for Biodiesel Production 269
9.2.1 Dilution With Hydrocarbons Blending 269
9.2.2 Micro-Emulsion 269
9.2.3 Pyrolysis (Thermal Cracking) 270
9.2.4 Transesterification (Alcoholysis) 271
9.2.4.1 In Situ Transesterification (Reactive Extraction) 271
9.2.4.2 Conventional Transesterification 272
9.2.4.3 Microwave/Ultrasound-Assisted Transesterification 278
9.2.4.4 Variables Affecting Transesterification Reaction 278
References 282
10 Non-Edible Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 285
Chikati Roick, Kabir Opeyemi Otun, Nkazi Diankanua and Gorimbo Joshua
List of Abbreviations 286
10.1 Introduction 286
10.2 Reports Relevant to Global Warming and Renewable Energy 287
10.3 Biofuels as an Alternative Energy Source 288
10.3.1 First-Generation Biofuels 288
10.3.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 289
10.3.3 Third-Generation Biofuels 290
10.4 Benefits of Using Biodiesel 290
10.5 Technologies of Biodiesel Production From Non-Edible Feedstock 291
10.6 Biodiesel Production by Transesterification 292
10.7 Non-Edible Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 295
10.7.1 Non-Edible Vegetable Oils 296
10.7.2 Waste Cooking Oil 297
10.7.3 Algal Oil 298
10.7.4 Waste Animal Fat/Oil 299
10.8 Fuel Properties of Biodiesel Obtained From Non-Edible Feedstock 299
10.9 Advantages of Non-Edible Feedstocks 302
10.10 Economic Importance of Biodiesel Production 302
10.11 Conclusions 303
Acknowledgments 303
References 304
11 Oleochemical Resources for Biodiesel Production 311
Gayathri R., Ranjitha J. and Vijayalakshmi Shankar
11.1 Introduction 311
11.2 Definition of Oleochemicals 312
11.3 Oleochemical Types 313
11.4 Production of Biodiesel 315
11.5 Types of Feedstocks 317
11.5.1 Non-Edible Feedstocks 317
11.5.2 Non-Edible Vegetable Oil 317
11.5.3 Tall Oil 318
11.5.4 Waste Cooking Oils 318
11.5.5 Animal Fats 318
11.5.6 Chicken Fat 319
11.5.7 Lard 319
11.5.8 Tallow 320
11.5.9 Leather Industry Solid Waste Fat 321
11.5.10 Fish Oil 322
11.6 Uses of Oleochemicals 322
11.6.1 Polymer Applications 322
11.6.2 Application of Plant Oil as a Substitute for Petro-Diesel 323
11.6.3 Used as Surfactants 323
11.6.4 Oleochemicals Used in Pesticide 324
11.6.5 Oleochemicals Used in Spray Adjuvants and Solvents 324
11.7 Methyl Ester or Biodiesel Production 324
11.7.1 Palm Oil 326
11.7.2 Sunflower Oil 326
11.7.3 ME From AFW 327
11.8 Parameters Affecting the Yield of Biodiesel 327
11.8.1 Reaction Conditions 327
11.8.2 Catalyst 327
11.8.2.1 Alkali Catalyst 327
11.8.2.2 Acid Catalyst 329
11.8.2.3 Biocatalyst 329
11.8.2.4 Heterogeneous Catalyst 329
11.8.2.5 ME Conversion by Supercritical Method 329
11.8.3 Properties of Feedstock 330
11.8.3.1 Composition of FA 330
11.8.3.2 FFA 330
11.8.3.3 Heat 330
11.8.3.4 Presence of Unwanted Materials 330
11.8.3.5 Titer 332
11.8.4 Characteristic of Feedstock 332
11.9 Optimization of Reactions Conditions for High Yield and Quality of Biodiesel 332
11.9.1 Pre-Treatment of Feedstock 332
11.9.1.1 Elimination of Water 332
11.9.1.2 Elimination of Insoluble Impurities 332
11.9.1.3 Elimination of Unsaponifiables 333
11.9.2 Characterization and Selection of Feedstocks 333
11.9.3 Selection of Reaction Conditions 333
11.10 Oil Recovery 333
11.10.1 Alkaline Flooding Method 333
11.10.2 Additives 334
11.11 Quality Improvement of Biodiesel 334
11.11.1 Additives for Improving Combustion Ability 334
11.11.2 Additives for Enhancing the Octane Number 334
11.11.3 Additives for Improving the Stability 334
11.11.4 Additives to Enhance Cold Flow Property 334
11.11.5 Additives to Enhance Lubricity 335
11.11.6 Additives to Enhance Cetane Number 335
11.12 Conclusion 335
Abbreviations 335
References 336
12 Overview on Different Reactors for Biodiesel Production 341
V. C. Akubude, K.F. Jaiyeoba, T.F Oyewusi, E.C. Abbah, J.A. Oyedokun and V.C. Okafor
12.1 Introduction 341
12.2 Biodiesel Production Reactors 342
12.2.1 Batch Reactor 343
12.2.2 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor 344
12.2.3 Fixed Bed Reactor 346
12.2.4 Bubble Column Reactor 347
12.2.5 Reactive Distillation Column 349
12.2.6 Hybrid Catalytic Plasma Reactor 350
12.2.7 Microreactors Technology 350
12.2.8 Oscillatory Flow Reactors 353
12.2.9 Other Novel Reactors 353
12.3 Future Prospects 354
12.4 Conclusion 354
References 354
13 Patents on Biodiesel 361
Azira Abdul Razak, Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed and Darfizzi Derawi
13.1 Introduction 361
13.2 Generation of Biodiesel 362
13.3 Development of Catalyst 363
13.3.1 Homogeneous Catalyst 364
13.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst 364
13.4 Method Producing Biodiesel 365
13.4.1 Pre-Treatment Process 365
13.4.2 Direct Use and Blending of Oils 366
13.4.3 Esterification of FFA 366
13.4.4 Transesterification of TAG 367
13.4.5 Pyrolysis 368
13.5 Reactor's Technology for Biodiesel Production 369
13.5.1 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor 370
13.5.2 Fixed Bed Reactor 370
13.5.3 Micro-Mixer Reactor 371
13.6 Conclusion 372
References 372
14 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids With an Alcohol Over Acid Materials 377
J.E. Castanheiro
14.1 Introduction 377
14.2 Zeolites 378
14.3 SO3H as Catalyst 379
14.4 Metal Oxides 380
14.5 Heteropolyacids 382
14.6 Other Materials 384
14.7 Conclusions 384
References 385
15 Biodiesel Production From Non-Edible and Waste Lipid Sources 389
Opeoluwa O. Fasanya, Aishat A. Osigbesan and Onoriode P. Avbenake
15.1 Introduction 390
15.2 Non-Edible Plant-Based Oils 394
15.2.1 Jatropha curcas 394
15.2.2 Calophyllum inophyllum 397
15.2.3 Mesua ferrea 397
15.2.4 Jojoba Oil 398
15.2.5 Azadirachta indica 398
15.2.6 Rubber Seed Oil 399
15.2.7 Ricinus communis as Feedstock (Castor Oil) 402
15.2.8 Other Non-Edible Oils 403
15.3 Waste Animal Fats 404
15.4 Expired and Waste Cooking Oils 405
15.5 Algae/Microalgae 406
15.6 Insects as Biodiesel Feedstock 411
15.7 Deacidification 414
15.8 Other Technologies 414
15.9 Conclusion 415
References 415
16 Microalgae for Biodiesel Production 429
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Victoria Olaide Adenigba, Devarajan Thangadura and Mohd Imran Ahamed
16.1 Introduction 430
16.2 Physicochemical Properties of Biodiesel From Microalgae 431
16.3 Genetic Engineering/Techniques Enhancing Biodiesel Production 432
16.4 Nanotechnology in Microalgae Biodiesel Production 434
16.5 Specific Examples of Biodiesel Production From Microalgae 434
16.6 Methodology Involved in the Extraction of Algae 438
16.6.1 Chemical Solvents Extraction 439
16.6.2 Extraction by Supercritical Carbon Dioxide 439
16.6.3 Extraction Using Biochemical Techniques 439
16.6.4 Extraction Involving Direct Transesterification 440
16.6.5 Extraction Using Transesterification Techniques 440
16.7 Conclusion and Future Recommendation to Knowledge 440
References 441
17 Biodiesel Production Methods and Feedstocks 447
Setareh Heidari and David A. Wood
17.1 Introduction 448
17.2 Biofuel Classification in Terms of Origin and Technological Conversion of Raw Materials 449
17.3 Techniques Capable of Producing Biodiesel on Commercial Scales 451
17.3.1 Direct and Blending Methods With the Aim of Biodiesel Generation 452
17.3.2 Microemulsion Methods 452
17.3.3 Pyrolysis Methods 453
17.3.4 Transesterification Methods 453
17.4 Influential Parameters on Biodiesel Production 454
17.4.1 The Choice of Transesterification Catalysts 454
17.4.2 Effects of Catalyst Characteristics on Biodiesel Production Efficiency 454
17.5 Biodiesel Markets and Economic Considerations 455
17.6 Challenges Confronting Biodiesel Uptake 456
17.7 Corrosion and Quality Monitoring Issues for Biodiesel 457
17.8 Conclusions 457
References 458
18 Application of Nanoparticles for the Enhanced Production of Biodiesel 465
Muhammad Hilman Mustapha, Akhsan Kamil Azizi, Wan Nur Aini Wan Mokhtar and Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed
18.1 Introduction 465
18.2 Solid Nanoparticles 466
18.3 Nanobioparticles/Nanobiocatalyst 471
18.4 Magnetic Nanoparticles 473
18.5 How Nanoparticles Enhanced Biodiesel Production? 475
18.6 Conclusion 477
References 477
Index 481
Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of multiple awards, including the Fast Track Young Scientist Award and the Young Researcher of the Year Award for 2020, from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published almost 200 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 120 edited books with multiple well-known publishers.
Mohd Imran Ahamed, PhD, is a research associate in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in various international scientific journals and has co-edited multiple books. His research work includes ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment, and analysis, bending actuator and electrospinning.
Rajender Boddula, PhD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals. He is also serving as an editorial board member and a referee for several reputed international peer-reviewed journals. He has published edited books with numerous publishers and has authored over twenty book chapters.
Mashallah Rezakazemi, PhD, received his doctorate from the University of Tehran (UT) in 2015. In his first appointment, he served as associate professor in the Faculty of Chemical and Materials Engineering at Shahrood University of Technology. He has co-authored in more than 140 highly cited journal publications, conference articles and book chapters. He has received numerous major awards and grants from various funding agencies in recognition of his research. Notable among these are Khwarizmi Youth Award from the Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST), and the Outstanding Young Researcher Award in Chemical Engineering from the Academy of Sciences of Iran. He was named a top 1% most Highly Cited Researcher by Web of Science (ESI).
Mohd Imran Ahamed, PhD, is a research associate in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in various international scientific journals and has co-edited multiple books. His research work includes ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment, and analysis, bending actuator and electrospinning.
Rajender Boddula, PhD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals. He is also serving as an editorial board member and a referee for several reputed international peer-reviewed journals. He has published edited books with numerous publishers and has authored over twenty book chapters.
Mashallah Rezakazemi, PhD, received his doctorate from the University of Tehran (UT) in 2015. In his first appointment, he served as associate professor in the Faculty of Chemical and Materials Engineering at Shahrood University of Technology. He has co-authored in more than 140 highly cited journal publications, conference articles and book chapters. He has received numerous major awards and grants from various funding agencies in recognition of his research. Notable among these are Khwarizmi Youth Award from the Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST), and the Outstanding Young Researcher Award in Chemical Engineering from the Academy of Sciences of Iran. He was named a top 1% most Highly Cited Researcher by Web of Science (ESI).
