Semiconductor Basics
A Qualitative, Non-mathematical Explanation of How Semiconductors Work and How They are Used
1. Edition September 2020
320 Pages, Hardcover
Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBN:
978-1-119-70230-6
John Wiley & Sons
Further versions
An accessible guide to how semiconductor electronics work and how they are manufactured, for professionals and interested readers with no electronics engineering background
Semiconductor Basics is an accessible guide to how semiconductors work. It is written for readers without an electronic engineering background. Semiconductors are the basis for almost all modern electronic devices. The author--an expert on the topic--explores the fundamental concepts of what a semiconductor is, the different types in use, and how they are different from conductors and insulators. The book has a large number of helpful and illustrative drawings, photos, and figures.
The author uses only simple arithmetic to help understand the device operation and applications. The book reviews the key devices that can be constructed using semiconductor materials such as diodes and transistors and all the large electronic systems based on these two component such as computers, memories, LCDs and related technology like Lasers LEDs and infrared detectors. The text also explores integrated circuits and explains how they are fabricated. The author concludes with some projections about what can be expected in the future. This important book:
* Offers an accessible guide to semiconductors using qualitative explanations and analogies, with minimal mathematics and equations
* Presents the material in a well-structured and logical format
* Explores topics from device physics fundamentals to transistor formation and fabrication and the operation of the circuits to build electronic devices and systems
* Includes information on practical applications of p-n junctions, transistors, and integrated circuits to link theory and practice
Written for anyone interested in the technology, working in semiconductor labs or in the semiconductor industry, Semiconductor Basics offers clear explanations about how semiconductors work and its manufacturing process.
Acknowledgements xiii
Introduction xv
1 The Bohr Atom 1
Objectives of This Chapter 1
1.1 Sinusoidal Waves 1
1.2 The Case of the Missing Lines 3
1.3 The Strange Behavior of Spectra from Gases and Metals 4
1.4 The Classifications of Basic Elements 5
1.5 The Hydrogen Spectrum Lines 5
1.6 Light is a Particle 7
1.7 The Atom's Structure 8
1.8 The Bohr Atom 10
1.9 Summary and Conclusions 13
Appendix 1.1 Some Details of the Bohr Model 14
Appendix 1.2 Semiconductor Materials 16
Appendix 1.3 Calculating the Rydberg Constant 16
2 Energy Bands 19
Objectives of This Chapter 19
2.1 Bringing Atoms Together 19
2.2 The Insulator 22
2.3 The Conductor 23
2.4 The Semiconductor 24
2.5 Digression: Water Analogy 27
2.6 The Mobility of Charges 27
2.7 Summary and Conclusions 28
Appendix 2.1 Energy Gap in Semiconductors 29
Appendix 2.2 Number of Electrons and the Fermi Function 29
3 Types of Semiconductors 35
Objectives of This Chapter 35
3.1 Semiconductor Materials 35
3.2 Short Summary of Semiconductor Materials 36
3.2.1 Silicon 36
3.2.2 Germanium 37
3.2.3 Gallium Arsenide 39
3.3 Intrinsic Semiconductors 39
3.4 Doped Semiconductors: n-Type 40
3.5 Doped Semiconductors: p-Type 43
3.6 Additional Considerations 45
3.7 Summary and Conclusions 47
Appendix 3.1 The Fermi Levels in Doped Semiconductors 48
Appendix 3.2 Why All Donor Electrons go to the Conduction Band 50
4 Infrared Detectors 51
Objectives of This Chapter 51
4.1 What is Infrared Radiation? 51
4.2 What Our Eyes Can See 54
4.3 Infrared Applications 55
4.4 Types of Infrared Radiation 58
4.5 Extrinsic Silicon Infrared Detectors 58
4.6 Intrinsic Infrared Detectors 62
4.7 Summary and Conclusions 63
Appendix 4.1 Light Diffraction 64
Appendix 4.2 Blackbody Radiation 66
5 The pn-Junction 69
Objectives of This Chapter 69
5.1 The pn-Junction 69
5.2 The Semiconductor Diode 72
5.3 The Schottky Diode 76
5.4 The Zener or Tunnel Diode 77
5.5 Summary and Conclusions 81
Appendix 5.1 Fermi Levels of a pn-Junction 81
Appendix 5.2 Diffusion and Drift Currents 82
Appendix 5.3 The Thickness of the Transition Region 83
Appendix 5.4 Work Function and the Schottky Diode 85
6 Other Electrical Components 89
Objectives of This Chapter 89
6.1 Voltage and Current 89
6.2 Resistance 90
6.3 The Capacitor 93
6.4 The Inductor 96
6.5 Sinusoidal Voltage 98
6.6 Inductor Applications 99
6.7 Summary and Conclusions 102
Appendix 6.1 Impedance and Phase Changes 102
7 Diode Applications 105
Objectives of This Chapter 105
7.1 Solar Cells 105
7.2 Rectifiers 106
7.3 Current Protection Circuit 109
7.4 Clamping Circuit 109
7.5 Voltage Clipper 110
7.6 Half-wave Voltage Doubler 111
7.7 Solar Cells Bypass Diodes 113
7.8 Applications of Schottky Diodes 113
7.9 Applications of Zener Diodes 114
7.10 Summary and Conclusions 115
Appendix 7.1 Calculation of the Current Through an RC Circuit 115
8 Transistors 117
Objectives of This Chapter 117
8.1 The Concept of the Transistor 117
8.2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor 118
8.3 The Junction Field-effect Transistor 124
8.4 The Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET 128
8.5 Summary and Conclusions 132
Appendix 8.1 Punch Trough 134
9 Transistor Biasing Circuits 135
Objectives of This Chapter 135
9.1 Introduction 135
9.2 Emitter Feedback Bias 136
9.3 Sinusoidal Operation of a Transistor with Emitter Bias 140
9.4 The Fixed Bias Circuit 144
9.5 The Collector Feedback Bias Circuit 147
9.6 Power Considerations 148
9.7 Multistage Transistor Amplifiers 149
9.8 Operational Amplifiers 150
9.9 The Ideal OpAmp 153
9.10 Summary and Conclusions 155
Appendix 9.1 Derivation of the Stability of the Collector Feedback Circuit 156
10 Integrated Circuit Fabrication 159
Objectives of This Chapter 159
10.1 The Basic Material 159
10.2 The Boule 160
10.2.1 The Czochralski Method 160
10.2.2 The Flow-zone Method 161
10.3 Wafers and Epitaxial Growth 162
10.4 Photolithography 162
10.5 The Fabrication of a pnp Transistor on a Silicon Wafer 163
10.6 A Digression on Doping 166
10.6.1 Thermal Diffusion 166
10.6.2 Implantation 167
10.7 Resume the Transistor Processing 170
10.7.1 The Contacts 170
10.7.2 Metallization 170
10.7.3 Multiple Interconnects 171
10.8 Fabrication of Other Components 172
10.8.1 The Integrated Resistor 172
10.8.2 The Integrated Capacitor 173
10.8.3 The Integrated Inductor 173
10.9 Testing and Packaging 174
10.10 Clean Rooms 178
10.11 Additional Thoughts About Processing 180
10.12 Summary and Conclusions 181
Appendix 10.1 Miller Indices in the Diamond Structure 183
11 Logic Circuits 187
Objectives of This Chapter 187
11.1 Boolean Algebra 187
11.2 Logic Symbols and Relay Circuits 188
11.3 The Electronics Inside the Symbols 190
11.3.1 Diode Implementation 191
11.3.2 CMOS Implementation 192
11.4 The Inverter or NOT Circuit 192
11.5 The NOR Circuit 193
11.6 The NAND Circuit 195
11.7 The XNOR or Exclusive NOR 196
11.8 The Half Adder 197
11.9 The Full Adder 198
11.10 Adding More than Two Digital Numbers 198
11.11 The Subtractor 199
11.12 Digression: Flip-flops, Latches, and Shifters 201
11.13 Multiplication and Division of Binary Numbers 203
11.14 Additional Comments: Speed and Power 204
11.15 Summary and Conclusions 206
Appendix 11.1 Algebraic Formulation of Logic Modules 206
Appendix 11.2 Detailed Analysis of the Full Adder 207
Appendix 11.3 Complementary Numbers 208
Appendix 11.4 Dividing Digital Numbers 209
Appendix 11.5 The Author's Symbolic Logic Machine Using Relays 210
12 VLSI Components 211
Objectives of This Chapter 211
12.1 Multiplexers 211
12.2 Demultiplexers 213
12.3 Registers 214
12.4 Timing and Waveforms 216
12.5 Memories 218
12.5.1 Static Random-access Memory 219
12.5.2 Dynamic Random-access Memory 222
12.5.3 Read-only Memory 224
12.5.4 Programable Read-only Memory 225
12.6 Gate Arrays 227
12.7 Summary and Conclusions 227
Appendix 12.1 A NAND implementation of a 2 to 1 MUX 228
13 Optoelectronics 229
Objectives of This Chapter 229
13.1 Photoconductors 229
13.2 PIN Diodes 230
13.3 LASERs 231
13.3.1 Laser Action 231
13.3.2 Solid-state Lasers 234
13.3.3 Semiconductor LASERs 234
13.3.4 LASER Applications 237
13.4 Light-emitting Diodes 238
13.5 Summary and Conclusions 240
Appendix 13.1 The Detector Readout 240
14 Microprocessors and Modern Electronics 243
Objectives of This Chapter 243
14.1 The Computer 243
14.1.1 Computer Architecture 243
14.1.2 Memories 244
14.1.3 Input and Output Units 246
14.1.4 The Central Processing Unit 246
14.2 Microcontrollers 248
14.3 Liquid Crystal Displays 249
14.3.1 Liquid Crystal Materials 249
14.3.2 Contacts 251
14.3.3 Color Filters 251
14.3.4 Thin-film Transistors 251
14.3.5 The Glass 253
14.3.6 Polarizers 253
14.3.7 The Source of Light 254
14.3.8 The Entire Operation 254
14.4 Summary and Conclusions 255
Appendix 14.1 Keyboard Codes 256
15 The Future 257
Objectives of This Chapter 257
15.1 The Past 257
15.2 Problems with Silicon-based Technology 262
15.3 New Technologies 265
15.3.1 Nanotubes 265
15.3.2 Quantum Computing 266
15.3.3 Biocomputing 268
15.4 Silicon Technology Innovations 268
15.4.1 Process Improvements 269
15.4.2 Vertical Integration 269
15.4.3 The FinFET 271
15.4.4 The Tunnel FET 271
15.5 Summary and Conclusions 272
Epilogue 273
Appendix A Useful Constants 275
Appendix B Properties of Silicon 277
Appendix C List of Acronyms 279
Additional Reading and Sources 285
Index 289
Introduction xv
1 The Bohr Atom 1
Objectives of This Chapter 1
1.1 Sinusoidal Waves 1
1.2 The Case of the Missing Lines 3
1.3 The Strange Behavior of Spectra from Gases and Metals 4
1.4 The Classifications of Basic Elements 5
1.5 The Hydrogen Spectrum Lines 5
1.6 Light is a Particle 7
1.7 The Atom's Structure 8
1.8 The Bohr Atom 10
1.9 Summary and Conclusions 13
Appendix 1.1 Some Details of the Bohr Model 14
Appendix 1.2 Semiconductor Materials 16
Appendix 1.3 Calculating the Rydberg Constant 16
2 Energy Bands 19
Objectives of This Chapter 19
2.1 Bringing Atoms Together 19
2.2 The Insulator 22
2.3 The Conductor 23
2.4 The Semiconductor 24
2.5 Digression: Water Analogy 27
2.6 The Mobility of Charges 27
2.7 Summary and Conclusions 28
Appendix 2.1 Energy Gap in Semiconductors 29
Appendix 2.2 Number of Electrons and the Fermi Function 29
3 Types of Semiconductors 35
Objectives of This Chapter 35
3.1 Semiconductor Materials 35
3.2 Short Summary of Semiconductor Materials 36
3.2.1 Silicon 36
3.2.2 Germanium 37
3.2.3 Gallium Arsenide 39
3.3 Intrinsic Semiconductors 39
3.4 Doped Semiconductors: n-Type 40
3.5 Doped Semiconductors: p-Type 43
3.6 Additional Considerations 45
3.7 Summary and Conclusions 47
Appendix 3.1 The Fermi Levels in Doped Semiconductors 48
Appendix 3.2 Why All Donor Electrons go to the Conduction Band 50
4 Infrared Detectors 51
Objectives of This Chapter 51
4.1 What is Infrared Radiation? 51
4.2 What Our Eyes Can See 54
4.3 Infrared Applications 55
4.4 Types of Infrared Radiation 58
4.5 Extrinsic Silicon Infrared Detectors 58
4.6 Intrinsic Infrared Detectors 62
4.7 Summary and Conclusions 63
Appendix 4.1 Light Diffraction 64
Appendix 4.2 Blackbody Radiation 66
5 The pn-Junction 69
Objectives of This Chapter 69
5.1 The pn-Junction 69
5.2 The Semiconductor Diode 72
5.3 The Schottky Diode 76
5.4 The Zener or Tunnel Diode 77
5.5 Summary and Conclusions 81
Appendix 5.1 Fermi Levels of a pn-Junction 81
Appendix 5.2 Diffusion and Drift Currents 82
Appendix 5.3 The Thickness of the Transition Region 83
Appendix 5.4 Work Function and the Schottky Diode 85
6 Other Electrical Components 89
Objectives of This Chapter 89
6.1 Voltage and Current 89
6.2 Resistance 90
6.3 The Capacitor 93
6.4 The Inductor 96
6.5 Sinusoidal Voltage 98
6.6 Inductor Applications 99
6.7 Summary and Conclusions 102
Appendix 6.1 Impedance and Phase Changes 102
7 Diode Applications 105
Objectives of This Chapter 105
7.1 Solar Cells 105
7.2 Rectifiers 106
7.3 Current Protection Circuit 109
7.4 Clamping Circuit 109
7.5 Voltage Clipper 110
7.6 Half-wave Voltage Doubler 111
7.7 Solar Cells Bypass Diodes 113
7.8 Applications of Schottky Diodes 113
7.9 Applications of Zener Diodes 114
7.10 Summary and Conclusions 115
Appendix 7.1 Calculation of the Current Through an RC Circuit 115
8 Transistors 117
Objectives of This Chapter 117
8.1 The Concept of the Transistor 117
8.2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor 118
8.3 The Junction Field-effect Transistor 124
8.4 The Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET 128
8.5 Summary and Conclusions 132
Appendix 8.1 Punch Trough 134
9 Transistor Biasing Circuits 135
Objectives of This Chapter 135
9.1 Introduction 135
9.2 Emitter Feedback Bias 136
9.3 Sinusoidal Operation of a Transistor with Emitter Bias 140
9.4 The Fixed Bias Circuit 144
9.5 The Collector Feedback Bias Circuit 147
9.6 Power Considerations 148
9.7 Multistage Transistor Amplifiers 149
9.8 Operational Amplifiers 150
9.9 The Ideal OpAmp 153
9.10 Summary and Conclusions 155
Appendix 9.1 Derivation of the Stability of the Collector Feedback Circuit 156
10 Integrated Circuit Fabrication 159
Objectives of This Chapter 159
10.1 The Basic Material 159
10.2 The Boule 160
10.2.1 The Czochralski Method 160
10.2.2 The Flow-zone Method 161
10.3 Wafers and Epitaxial Growth 162
10.4 Photolithography 162
10.5 The Fabrication of a pnp Transistor on a Silicon Wafer 163
10.6 A Digression on Doping 166
10.6.1 Thermal Diffusion 166
10.6.2 Implantation 167
10.7 Resume the Transistor Processing 170
10.7.1 The Contacts 170
10.7.2 Metallization 170
10.7.3 Multiple Interconnects 171
10.8 Fabrication of Other Components 172
10.8.1 The Integrated Resistor 172
10.8.2 The Integrated Capacitor 173
10.8.3 The Integrated Inductor 173
10.9 Testing and Packaging 174
10.10 Clean Rooms 178
10.11 Additional Thoughts About Processing 180
10.12 Summary and Conclusions 181
Appendix 10.1 Miller Indices in the Diamond Structure 183
11 Logic Circuits 187
Objectives of This Chapter 187
11.1 Boolean Algebra 187
11.2 Logic Symbols and Relay Circuits 188
11.3 The Electronics Inside the Symbols 190
11.3.1 Diode Implementation 191
11.3.2 CMOS Implementation 192
11.4 The Inverter or NOT Circuit 192
11.5 The NOR Circuit 193
11.6 The NAND Circuit 195
11.7 The XNOR or Exclusive NOR 196
11.8 The Half Adder 197
11.9 The Full Adder 198
11.10 Adding More than Two Digital Numbers 198
11.11 The Subtractor 199
11.12 Digression: Flip-flops, Latches, and Shifters 201
11.13 Multiplication and Division of Binary Numbers 203
11.14 Additional Comments: Speed and Power 204
11.15 Summary and Conclusions 206
Appendix 11.1 Algebraic Formulation of Logic Modules 206
Appendix 11.2 Detailed Analysis of the Full Adder 207
Appendix 11.3 Complementary Numbers 208
Appendix 11.4 Dividing Digital Numbers 209
Appendix 11.5 The Author's Symbolic Logic Machine Using Relays 210
12 VLSI Components 211
Objectives of This Chapter 211
12.1 Multiplexers 211
12.2 Demultiplexers 213
12.3 Registers 214
12.4 Timing and Waveforms 216
12.5 Memories 218
12.5.1 Static Random-access Memory 219
12.5.2 Dynamic Random-access Memory 222
12.5.3 Read-only Memory 224
12.5.4 Programable Read-only Memory 225
12.6 Gate Arrays 227
12.7 Summary and Conclusions 227
Appendix 12.1 A NAND implementation of a 2 to 1 MUX 228
13 Optoelectronics 229
Objectives of This Chapter 229
13.1 Photoconductors 229
13.2 PIN Diodes 230
13.3 LASERs 231
13.3.1 Laser Action 231
13.3.2 Solid-state Lasers 234
13.3.3 Semiconductor LASERs 234
13.3.4 LASER Applications 237
13.4 Light-emitting Diodes 238
13.5 Summary and Conclusions 240
Appendix 13.1 The Detector Readout 240
14 Microprocessors and Modern Electronics 243
Objectives of This Chapter 243
14.1 The Computer 243
14.1.1 Computer Architecture 243
14.1.2 Memories 244
14.1.3 Input and Output Units 246
14.1.4 The Central Processing Unit 246
14.2 Microcontrollers 248
14.3 Liquid Crystal Displays 249
14.3.1 Liquid Crystal Materials 249
14.3.2 Contacts 251
14.3.3 Color Filters 251
14.3.4 Thin-film Transistors 251
14.3.5 The Glass 253
14.3.6 Polarizers 253
14.3.7 The Source of Light 254
14.3.8 The Entire Operation 254
14.4 Summary and Conclusions 255
Appendix 14.1 Keyboard Codes 256
15 The Future 257
Objectives of This Chapter 257
15.1 The Past 257
15.2 Problems with Silicon-based Technology 262
15.3 New Technologies 265
15.3.1 Nanotubes 265
15.3.2 Quantum Computing 266
15.3.3 Biocomputing 268
15.4 Silicon Technology Innovations 268
15.4.1 Process Improvements 269
15.4.2 Vertical Integration 269
15.4.3 The FinFET 271
15.4.4 The Tunnel FET 271
15.5 Summary and Conclusions 272
Epilogue 273
Appendix A Useful Constants 275
Appendix B Properties of Silicon 277
Appendix C List of Acronyms 279
Additional Reading and Sources 285
Index 289
Semiconductor Basics is an excellent beginner's guide on the average semiconductors used in many projects, explaining the usage in detail and other important data one must know. It's a perfect way to get a good selection of many different types. Creating a perfect guide for those in the engineering career field.
I found this book's resource and learning curve to be a bit easier to digest and use. It is much better than many books I've looked into and read on the process and fundamentals. I really want to get more ideas on many of the electrical pieces that are there to bring electrical energy through a product, after reading this! It's a great starter and part of a beautiful connection that makes devices run. So I can't say there isn't anything wrong with owning this book, especially for an amateur or professional engineer or electrician.
When going from front to back, the book is completely full of details and important people who discovered and created data on such parts that are taught inside this book on semiconductors. The book is very easy to read and has plenty of black and white illustrations and colored images to help provide a clear view of different topics being explained. I honestly enjoyed getting a bit of a physics, mechanical, engineering recap by learning about the atom, the design, many well-known people who brought these discoveries to light and so much other information.
Lastly, this book is a nice guide. It's very helpful and a great beginner guide. I would recommend this book for those interested in electronics whether it be personal projects, large or small, and company-related. This is an excellent guide and book! - TECH Fashion Trends
I found this book's resource and learning curve to be a bit easier to digest and use. It is much better than many books I've looked into and read on the process and fundamentals. I really want to get more ideas on many of the electrical pieces that are there to bring electrical energy through a product, after reading this! It's a great starter and part of a beautiful connection that makes devices run. So I can't say there isn't anything wrong with owning this book, especially for an amateur or professional engineer or electrician.
When going from front to back, the book is completely full of details and important people who discovered and created data on such parts that are taught inside this book on semiconductors. The book is very easy to read and has plenty of black and white illustrations and colored images to help provide a clear view of different topics being explained. I honestly enjoyed getting a bit of a physics, mechanical, engineering recap by learning about the atom, the design, many well-known people who brought these discoveries to light and so much other information.
Lastly, this book is a nice guide. It's very helpful and a great beginner guide. I would recommend this book for those interested in electronics whether it be personal projects, large or small, and company-related. This is an excellent guide and book! - TECH Fashion Trends
George Domingo, PhD, has worked in consulting and management, and as a teacher. He was Professor of Electrical Engineering - Solid State, Networks and Electronics at Northrop University, USA, for 11 years and spent 31 years in various roles in infrared systems for industry and for NASA's astronomical observatories.
