Guide to Mitigating Spacecraft Charging Effects
JPL Space Science and Technology Series (Series Nr. 1)
1. Edition June 2012
208 Pages, Hardcover
Wiley & Sons Ltd
Guide to Spacecraft Charging Effects is a single reference source containing both theory of spacecraft charging and suggested practical detailed spacecraft design requirements and procedures to minimize the effects of spacecraft charging and to limit the effects of the resulting electrostatic discharge.
Numerous equations provide a good theoretical background, and charts, graphs, figures, tables, and photos summarize and illustrate the theoretical background. Numerous appendices expand on the main text, a well thought-out index gives quick access to important concepts, and an extensive list of references provides further avenues of research for those wishing to extend their knowledge.
Much of the environmental data and material response information has been adapted from published and unpublished scientific literature for use in this document. It is the book form of the recently issued NASA Technical Handbook NASA-HDBK-4002A, March 3, 2011 (by the same authors). In particular, this book can be used as the textbook form of that Handbook and its earlier sources, NASA Technical Paper 2361, 1984, and NASA Technical Handbook NASA-HDBK-4002, 1999 (both co-authored by the current authors).
Since the original writing of the 2361 and 4002, there have been many developments in the understanding of spacecraft charging issues and mitigation solutions, as well as advanced technologies needing new mitigation solutions. The following topics are covered in Spacecraft Charging Effects:
* Solar cell technology, especially higher voltage arrays, and the new design approaches that are appropriate for them
* Information about the space plasma environment
* New analytic computer codes to analyze spacecraft charging
* Spacecraft anomalies and failures, which have emphasized certain designs that are of greater importance than others.
Foreword xiii
Preface xv
1 Introduction 1
2 Introduction to the Physics of Charging and Discharging 6
2.1 Physical Concepts, 6
2.1.1 Plasma, 6
2.1.2 Penetration, 8
2.1.3 Charge Deposition, 10
2.1.4 Conductivity and Grounding, 11
2.1.5 Breakdown Voltage, 11
2.1.6 Dielectric Constant, 12
2.1.7 Shielding Density, 12
2.1.8 Electron Fluxes (Fluences) at Breakdown, 12
2.2 Electron Environment, 13
2.2.1 Units, 14
2.2.2 Substorm Environment Specifications, 15
2.3 Modeling Spacecraft Charging, 16
2.3.1 The Physics of Surface Charging, 17
2.3.2 The Physics of Dielectric Charging, 19
2.4 Discharge Characteristics, 19
2.4.1 Dielectric Surface Breakdowns, 21
2.4.2 Buried (Internal) Charge Breakdowns, 22
2.4.3 Spacecraft-to-Space Breakdowns, 22
2.5 Coupling Models, 23
2.5.1 Lumped-Element Modeling, 23
2.5.2 Electromagnetic Coupling Models, 23
3 Spacecraft Design Guidelines 26
3.1 Processes, 26
3.1.1 Introduction, 26
3.1.2 Design, 27
3.1.3 Analysis, 28
3.1.4 Testing and Measurement, 28
3.1.5 Inspection, 29
3.2 Design Guidelines, 29
3.2.1 General ESD Design Guidelines, 29
3.2.2 Surface ESD Design Guidelines, Excluding Solar Arrays, 40
3.2.3 Internal ESD Design Guidelines, 41
3.2.4 Solar Array ESD Design Guidelines, 44
3.2.5 Special Situations ESD Design Guidelines, 54
4 Spacecraft Test Techniques 62
4.1 Test Philosophy, 62
4.2 Simulation of Parameters, 63
4.3 General Test Methods, 64
4.3.1 ESD-Generating Equipment, 64
4.3.2 Methods of ESD Applications, 68
5 Control and Monitoring Techniques 76
5.1 Active Spacecraft Charge Control, 76
5.2 Environmental and Event Monitors, 76
6 Material Notes and Tables 79
6.1 Dielectric Material List, 79
6.2 Conductor Material List, 80
A Nomenclature 83
A.1 Constants and Measurement Units, 83
A.2 Acronyms and Abbreviations, 84
A.3 Defined Terms, 89
A.4 Variables, 92
A.5 Symbols, 93
B The Space Environment 95
B.1 Introduction to Space Environments, 95
B.1.1 Quantitative Representations of the Space Environment, 95
B.1.2 Data Sources, 99
B.2 Geosynchronous Environments, 102
B.2.1 Geosynchronous Plasma Environments, 102
B.2.2 Geosynchronous High-Energy Environments, 104
B.3 Other Earth Environments, 110
B.3.1 MEO, 110
B.3.2 PEO, 111
B.3.3 Molniya Orbit, 112
B.4 Other Space Environments, 112
B.4.1 Solar Wind, 112
B.4.2 Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn Magnetospheres Compared, 113
C Environment, Electron Transport, and Spacecraft Charging Computer Codes 122
C.1 Environment Codes, 122
C.1.1 AE8/AP8, 122
C.1.2 CRRES, 122
C.1.3 Flux Model for Internal Charging (FLUMIC), 123
C.1.4 GIRE/SATRAD, 123
C.1.5 Handbook of Geophysics and the Space Environment, 123
C.1.6 L2 Charged Particle Environment (L2-CPE), 123
C.1.7 MIL-STD-1809, Space Environment for USAF Space Vehicles, 123
C.1.8 Geosynchronous Plasma Model, 124
C.1.9 Others, 124
C.2 Transport Codes, 124
C.2.1 Cosmic Ray Effects on MicroElectronics 1996 (CREME96), 124
C.2.2 EGS4, 125
C.2.3 Geant4, 125
C.2.4 Integrated TIGER Series (ITS), 125
C.2.5 MCNP/MCNPE, 126
C.2.6 NOVICE, 126
C.2.7 NUMIT, 126
C.2.8 SHIELDOSE, 127
C.2.9 SPENVIS/DICTAT, 127
C.2.10 TRIM, 127
C.2.11 Summary, 128
C.3 Charging Codes, 128
C.3.1 Environment Work Bench (EWB), 128
C.3.2 Multi-Utility Spacecraft Charging Analysis Tool (MUSCAT), 128
C.3.3 Nascap-2k and NASCAP Family of Charging Codes, 129
C.3.4 SEE Interactive Spacecraft Charging Handbook, 129
C.3.5 Spacecraft Plasma Interaction System (SPIS), 129
D Internal Charging Analyses 132
D.1 The Physics of Dielectric Charging, 132
D.2 Simple Internal Charging Analysis, 134
D.3 Detailed Analysis, 135
D.4 Spacecraft Level Analysis, 136
D.4.1 Dose-to-Fluence Approximation, 136
E Test Methods 138
E.1 Electron-Beam Tests, 138
E.2 Dielectric Strength/Breakdown Voltage, 139
E.3 Resistivity-Conductivity Determination, 140
E.4 Simple Volume Resistivity Measurement, 141
E.5 Electron-Beam Resistivity Test Method, 142
E.6 NonContacting Voltmeter Resistivity Test Method, 143
E.7 Dielectric Constant, Time Constant, 144
E.8 Vzap Test [MIL-STD-883G, Method 3015.7 Human Body Model (HBM)], 145
E.9 Transient Susceptibility Tests, 146
E.10 Component/Assembly Testing, 148
E.11 Surface Charging ESD Test Environments, 148
E.12 System Internal ESD Testing, 148
F Voyager SEMCAP Analysis 150
G Simple Approximations: Spacecraft Surface Charging Equations 152
H Derivation of Rule Limiting Open-Circuit Board Area 156
I Expanded Worst-Case Geosynchronous Earth Environments Descriptions 159
J Key Spacecraft Charging Documents 162
J.1 U.S. Government Documents, 162
J.1.1 DoD, 162
J.1.2 NASA, 164
J.2 Non-U.S. Government Documents, 166
J.2.1 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 166
J.2.2 European Cooperation for Space Standardization (ECSS)/European Handbooks, 166
J.2.3 European Space Research and Technology Centre, 167
J.2.4 Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), 167
J.2.5 Other, 167
K List of Figures and Tables 168
Index 173
Albert C. Whittlesey, member of the staff, Principal in the Office of Safety and Mission Success, has been a part of the Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) group since his arrival at JPL in 1962. Mr. Whittlesey has authored numerous symposium presentations and journal articles about various facets of EMC and spacecraft charging. He received a NASA Exceptional Engineering Achievement Medal for his technical leadership in EMC and ESD. Mr. Whittlesey is also the author of several NASA spacecraft charging guidelines with Dr. Garrett.