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Engineering Acoustics

Noise and Vibration Control

Crocker, Malcolm J. / Arenas, Jorge P.

Wiley Series in Acoustics Noise and Vibration

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1. Edition January 2021
784 Pages, Hardcover
Wiley & Sons Ltd

ISBN: 978-1-118-49642-8
John Wiley & Sons

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ENGINEERING ACOUSTICS
NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL

A masterful introduction to the theory of acoustics along with methods for the control of noise and vibration

In Engineering Acoustics: Noise and Vibration Control, two experts in the field review the fundamentals of acoustics, noise, and vibration. The authors show how this theoretical work can be applied to real-world problems such as the control of noise and vibration in aircraft, automobiles and trucks, machinery, and road and rail vehicles.

Engineering Acoustics: Noise and Vibration Control covers a wide range of topics.

The sixteen chapters include the following:
* Human hearing and individual and community response to noise and vibration
* Noise and vibration instrumentation and measurements
* Interior and exterior noise of aircraft as well as road and rail vehicles
* Methods for the control of noise and vibration in industrial equipment and machinery
* Use of theoretical models in absorptive and reactive muffler and silencer designs
* Practical applications of finite element, boundary element and statistical energy analysis
* Sound intensity theory, measurements, and applications
* Noise and vibration control in buildings
* How to design air-conditioning systems to minimize noise and vibration

Readers, whether students, professional engineers, or community planners, will find numerous worked examples throughout the book, and useful references at the end of each chapter to support supplemental reading on specific topics. There is a detailed index and a glossary of terms in acoustics, noise, and vibration.

Series Preface xix

Preface xxi

Acknowledgements xxiii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Types of Noise and Vibration Signals 1

1.2.1 Stationary Signals 2

1.2.2 Nonstationary Signals 2

1.3 Frequency Analysis 3

1.3.1 Fourier Series 3

1.3.2 Nonperiodic Functions and the Fourier Spectrum 6

1.3.3 Random Noise 6

1.3.4 Mean Square Values 8

1.3.5 Energy and Power Spectral Densities 9

1.4 Frequency Analysis Using Filters 10

1.5 Fast Fourier Transform Analysis 15

References 17

2 Vibration of Simple and Continuous Systems 19

2.1 Introduction 19

2.2 Simple Harmonic Motion 19

2.2.1 Period, Frequency, and Phase 20

2.2.2 Velocity and Acceleration 21

2.3 Vibrating Systems 23

2.3.1 Mass-Spring System 23

2.4 Multi-Degree of Freedom Systems 30

2.4.1 Free Vibration - Undamped 31

2.4.2 Forced Vibration - Undamped 34

2.4.3 Effect of Damping 36

2.5 Continuous Systems 38

2.5.1 Vibration of Beams 38

2.5.2 Vibration of Thin Plates 41

References 46

3 Sound Generation and Propagation 49

3.1 Introduction 49

3.2 Wave Motion 49

3.3 Plane Sound Waves 50

3.3.1 Sound Pressure 54

3.3.2 Particle Velocity 54

3.3.3 Impedance and Sound Intensity 55

3.3.4 Energy Density 55

3.3.5 Sound Power 56

3.4 Decibels and Levels 56

3.4.1 Sound Pressure Level 56

3.4.2 Sound Power Level 57

3.4.3 Sound Intensity Level 57

3.4.4 Combination of Decibels 58

3.5 Three-dimensional Wave Equation 60

3.6 Sources of Sound 61

3.6.1 Sound Intensity 63

3.7 Sound Power of Sources 63

3.7.1 Sound Power of Idealized Sound Sources 63

3.8 Sound Sources Above a Rigid Hard Surface 67

3.9 Directivity 68

3.9.1 Directivity Factor (Q(theta, Õ)) 70

3.9.2 Directivity Index 71

3.10 Line Sources 71

3.11 Reflection, Refraction, Scattering, and Diffraction 72

3.12 Ray Acoustics 74

3.13 Energy Acoustics 75

3.14 Near Field, Far Field, Direct Field, and Reverberant Field 76

3.14.1 Reverberation 76

3.14.2 Sound Absorption 77

3.14.3 Reverberation Time 78

3.15 Room Equation 80

3.15.1 Critical Distance 81

3.15.2 Noise Reduction 82

3.16 Sound Radiation From Idealized Structures 82

3.17 Standing Waves 85

3.18 Waveguides 91

3.19 Other Approaches 92

3.19.1 Acoustical Lumped Elements 92

3.19.2 Numerical Approaches: Finite Elements and Boundary Elements 92

3.19.3 Acoustic Modeling Using Equivalent Circuits 93

References 93

4 Human Hearing, Speech and Psychoacoustics 95

4.1 Introduction 95

4.2 Construction of Ear and Its Working 95

4.2.1 Construction of the Ear 95

4.2.2 Working of the Ear Mechanism 98

4.2.3 Theories of Hearing 98

4.3 Subjective Response 99

4.3.1 Hearing Envelope 99

4.3.2 Loudness Measurement 99

4.3.3 Masking 103

4.3.4 Pitch 107

4.3.5 Weighted Sound Pressure Levels 108

4.3.6 Critical Bands 111

4.3.7 Frequency (Bark) 112

4.3.8 Zwicker Loudness 113

4.3.9 Loudness Adaptation 115

4.3.10 Empirical Loudness Meter 115

4.4 Hearing Loss and Diseases (Disorders) 116

4.4.1 Conduction Hearing Loss 116

4.4.2 Sensory-Neural Hearing Loss 117

4.4.3 Presbycusis 118

4.5 Speech Production 118

References 122

5 Effects of Noise, Vibration, and Shock on People 125

5.1 Introduction 125

5.2 Sleep Disturbance 125

5.3 Annoyance 126

5.4 Cardiovascular Effects 127

5.5 Cognitive Impairment 129

5.6 Infrasound, Low-Frequency Noise, and Ultrasound 130

5.7 Intense Noise and Hearing Loss 131

5.7.1 Theories for Noise-Induced Hearing Loss 132

5.7.2 Impulsive and Impact Noise 133

5.8 Occupational Noise Regulations 134

5.8.1 Daily Noise Dose and Time-Weighted Average Calculation 137

5.9 Hearing Protection 140

5.9.1 Hearing Protectors 140

5.9.2 Hearing Conservation Programs 143

5.10 Effects of Vibration on People 144

5.11 Metrics to Evaluate Effects of Vibration and Shock on People 147

5.11.1 Acceleration Frequency Weightings 147

5.11.2 Whole-Body Vibration Dose Value 147

5.11.3 Evaluation of Hand-Transmitted Vibration 149

References 151

6 Description, Criteria, and Procedures Used to Determine Human Response to Noise and Vibration 155

6.1 Introduction 155

6.2 Loudness and Annoyance 155

6.3 Loudness and Loudness Level 156

6.4 Noisiness and Perceived Noise Level 157

6.4.1 Noisiness 157

6.4.2 Effective Perceived Noise Level 159

6.5 Articulation Index and Speech Intelligibility Index 160

6.6 Speech Interference Level 161

6.7 Indoor Noise Criteria 162

6.7.1 NC Curves 162

6.7.2 NR Curves 163

6.7.3 RC Curves 163

6.7.4 Balanced NC Curves 165

6.8 Equivalent Continuous SPL 166

6.9 Sound Exposure Level 167

6.10 Day-Night Equivalent SPL 168

6.11 Percentile SPLs 170

6.12 Evaluation of Aircraft Noise 170

6.12.1 Composite Noise Rating 171

6.12.2 Noise Exposure Forecast 172

6.12.3 Noise and Number Index 172

6.12.4 Equivalent A-Weighted SPL Leq, Day-Night Level Ldn, and Day-Evening-Night Level Lden 172

6.13 Evaluation of Traffic Noise 172

6.13.1 Traffic Noise Index 172

6.13.2 Noise Pollution Level 173

6.13.3 Equivalent SPL 173

6.14 Evaluation of Community Noise 174

6.15 Human Response 175

6.15.1 Sleep Interference 175

6.15.2 Annoyance 176

6.16 Noise Criteria and Noise Regulations 180

6.16.1 Noise Criteria 180

6.17 Human Vibration Criteria 182

6.17.1 Human Comfort in Buildings 182

6.17.2 Effect of Vibration on Buildings 184

References 185

7 Noise and Vibration Transducers, Signal Processing, Analysis, and Measurements 189

7.1 Introduction 189

7.2 Typical Measurement Systems 189

7.3 Transducers 190

7.3.1 Transducer Characteristics 191

7.3.2 Sensitivity 191

7.3.3 Dynamic Range 193

7.3.4 Frequency Response 195

7.4 Noise Measurements 195

7.4.1 Types of Microphones for Noise Measurements 196

7.4.2 Directivity 199

7.4.3 Transducer Calibration 199

7.5 Vibration Measurements 202

7.5.1 Principle of Seismic Mass Transducers 203

7.5.2 Piezoelectric Accelerometers 206

7.5.3 Measurement Difficulties 208

7.5.4 Calibration, Metrology, and Traceability of Shock and Vibration Transducers 211

7.6 Signal Analysis, Data Processing, and Specialized Noise And Vibration Measurements 211

7.6.1 Signal Analysis and Data Processing 211

7.6.2 Sound Level Meters (SLMs) and Dosimeters 211

7.6.3 Sound Power and Sound Intensity 212

7.6.4 Modal Analysis 212

7.6.5 Condition Monitoring 213

7.6.6 Advanced Noise and Vibration Analysis and Measurement Techniques 213

References 214

8 Sound Intensity, Measurements and Determination of Sound Power, Noise Source Identification, and Transmission Loss 217

8.1 Introduction 217

8.2 Historical Developments in the Measurement of Sound Pressure and Sound Intensity 217

8.3 Theoretical Background 221

8.4 Characteristics of Sound Fields 223

8.4.1 Active and Reactive Intensity 223

8.4.2 Plane Progressive Waves 223

8.4.3 Standing Waves 225

8.4.4 Vibrating Piston in a Tube 226

8.5 Active and Reactive Sound Fields 228

8.5.1 The Monopole Source 228

8.5.2 The Dipole Source 230

8.5.3 General Case 230

8.6 Measurement of Sound Intensity 232

8.6.1 The p-p Method 232

8.6.2 The p-u Method 246

8.6.3 The Surface Intensity Method 251

8.7 Applications 253

8.7.1 Sound Power Determination 255

8.7.2 Noise Source Identification 259

8.7.3 Noise Source Identification on a Diesel Engine Using Sound Intensity 259

8.7.4 Measurements of the Transmission Loss of Structures Using Sound Intensity 265

8.8 Comparison Between Sound Power Measurements Using Sound Intensity and Sound Pressure Methods 275

8.8.1 Sound Intensity Method 277

8.8.2 Sound Pressure Method 278

8.9 Standards for Sound Intensity Measurements 280

References 282

9 Principles of Noise and Vibration Control 287

9.1 Introduction 287

9.2 Systematic Approach to Noise Problems 287

9.2.1 Noise and Vibration Source Identification 288

9.2.2 Noise Reduction Techniques 290

9.3 Use of Vibration Isolators 290

9.3.1 Theory of Vibration Isolation 291

9.3.2 Machine Vibration 294

9.3.3 Use of Inertia Blocks 295

9.3.4 Other Considerations 296

9.4 Use of Damping Materials 296

9.4.1 Unconstrained Damping Layer 298

9.4.2 Constrained Damping Layer 299

9.5 Use of Sound Absorption 300

9.5.1 Sound Absorption Coefficient 300

9.5.2 Noise Reduction Coefficient 300

9.5.3 Absorption by Porous Fibrous Materials 301

9.5.4 Panel or Membrane Absorbers 306

9.5.5 Helmholtz Resonator Absorbers 307

9.5.6 Perforated Panel Absorbers 310

9.5.7 Slit Absorbers 312

9.5.8 Suspended Absorbers 314

9.5.9 Acoustical Spray-on Materials 314

9.5.10 Acoustical Plaster 315

9.5.11 Measurement of Sound Absorption Coefficients 316

9.5.12 Optimization of the Reverberation Time 316

9.5.13 Reduction of the Sound Pressure Level in Reverberant Fields 318

9.6 Acoustical Enclosures 319

9.6.1 Reverberant Sound Field Model for Enclosures 319

9.6.2 Machine Enclosure in Free Field 320

9.6.3 Simple Enclosure Design Assuming Diffuse Reverberant Sound Fields 321

9.6.4 Close-Fitting Enclosures 325

9.6.5 Partial Enclosures 327

9.6.6 Other Considerations 328

9.7 Use of Barriers 330

9.7.1 Transmission Loss of Barriers 334

9.7.2 Use of Barriers Indoors 334

9.7.3 Reflections from the Ground 337

9.7.4 Use of Barriers Outdoors 338

9.8 Active Noise and Vibration Control 339

References 344

10 Mufflers and Silencers - Absorbent and Reactive Types 351

10.1 Introduction 351

10.2 Muffler Classification 351

10.3 Definitions of Muffler Performance 352

10.4 Reactive Mufflers 352

10.5 Historical Development of Reactive Muffler Theories 354

10.6 Classical Reactive Muffler Theory 358

10.6.1 Transmission Line Theory 358

10.6.2 TL of Resonators 359

10.6.3 NACA 1192 Study on Reactive Muffler TL 368

10.6.4 Transfer Matrix Theory 371

10.7 Exhaust System Modeling 374

10.7.1 Transmission Loss 374

10.7.2 Insertion Loss 375

10.7.3 Sound Pressure Radiated from Tailpipe 376

10.8 Tail Pipe Radiation Impedance, Source Impedance and Source Strength 377

10.8.1 Tail Pipe Radiation 377

10.8.2 Internal Combustion Engine Impedance and Source Strength 378

10.9 Numerical Modeling of Muffler Acoustical Performance 380

10.9.1 Finite Element Analysis 380

10.9.2 Boundary Element Analysis 388

10.9.3 TL of Concentric Tube Resonators 396

10.10 Reactive Muffler IL 403

10.11 Measurements of Source Impedance 403

10.12 Dissipative Mufflers and Lined Ducts 406

10.13 Historical Development of Dissipative Mufflers and Lined Duct Theories 406

10.14 Parallel-Baffle Mufflers 407

10.14.1 Embleton's Method [8] 408

10.14.2 Ver's Method [11, 12, 136] 409

10.14.3 Ingard's Method [149] 411

10.14.4 Bies and Hansen Method [14] 414

10.14.5 Mechel's Design Curves [152] 415

10.14.6 Ramakrishnan and Watson Curves [151] 416

10.14.7 Finite Element Approach for Attenuation of Parallel-Baffle Mufflers 418

References 420

11 Noise and Vibration Control of Machines 427

11.1 Introduction 427

11.2 Machine Element Noise and Vibration Sources and Control 427

11.2.1 Gears 427

11.2.2 Bearings 430

11.2.3 Fans and Blowers 433

11.2.4 Metal Cutting 438

11.2.5 Woodworking 439

11.3 Built-up Machines 443

11.3.1 Internal Combustion Engines 443

11.3.2 Electric Motors and Electrical Equipment 444

11.3.3 Compressors 446

11.3.4 Pumps 450

11.4 Noise Due to Fluid Flow 454

11.4.1 Valve-Induced Noise 454

11.4.2 Hydraulic System Noise 456

11.4.3 Furnace and Burner Noise 458

11.5 Noise Control of Industrial Production Machinery 459

11.5.1 Machine Tool Noise, Vibration, and Chatter 459

11.5.2 Sound Power Level for Industrial Machinery 460

References 460

12 Noise and Vibration Control in Buildings 465

12.1 Introduction 465

12.2 Sound Transmission Theory for Single Panels 466

12.2.1 Mass-Law Transmission Loss 466

12.2.2 Random Incidence Transmission Loss 469

12.2.3 The Coincidence Effect 474

12.3 Sound Transmission for Double and Multiple Panels 476

12.3.1 Sound Transmission Through Infinite Double Panels 476

12.3.2 London's Theory 477

12.3.3 Empirical Approach 480

12.4 Sound and Vibration Transmission and Structural Response Using Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) 484

12.4.1 Introduction 484

12.4.2 SEA Fundamentals and Assumptions 484

12.4.3 Power Flow Between Coupled Systems 496

12.4.4 Modal Behavior of Panel 496

12.4.5 Use of SEA to Predict Sound Transmission Through Panels or Partitions 497

12.4.6 Design of Enclosures Using SEA 503

12.4.7 Optimization of Enclosure Attenuation 506

12.4.8 SEA Computer Codes 508

12.5 Transmission Through Composite Walls 508

12.6 Effects of Leaks and Flanking Transmission 511

12.7 Sound Transmission Measurement Techniques 514

12.7.1 Laboratory Methods of Measuring Transmission Loss 514

12.7.2 Measurements of Transmission Loss in the Field 519

12.8 Single-Number Ratings for Partitions 520

12.9 Impact Sound Transmission 523

12.9.1 Laboratory and Field Measurements of Impact Transmission 524

12.9.2 Rating of Impact Sound Transmission 526

12.10 Measured Airborne and Impact Sound Transmission (Insulation) Data 527

12.10.1 Gypsum Board Walls 528

12.10.2 Masonry Walls 528

12.10.3 Airborne and Impact Insulation of Floors 530

12.10.4 Doors and Windows 533

12.11 Sound Insulation Requirements 534

12.12 Control of Vibration of Buildings Caused by Strong Wind 541

12.12.1 Wind Excitation of Buildings 542

12.12.2 Structural Vibration Response of Buildings and Towers 544

12.12.3 Methods of Building Structure Vibration Reduction and Control 546

12.12.4 Human Response to Vibration and Acceptability Criteria 548

References 549

13 Design of Air-conditioning Systems for Noise and Vibration Control 557

13.1 Introduction 557

13.2 Interior Noise Level Design Criteria 558

13.3 General Features of a Ventilation System 558

13.3.1 HVAC Systems in Residential Homes 559

13.3.2 HVAC Systems in Large Buildings 559

13.3.3 Correct and Incorrect Installation of HVAC Systems 562

13.3.4 Sources of Noise and Causes of Complaints in HVAC Systems 564

13.4 Fan Noise 565

13.4.1 Types of Fans Used in HVAC Systems 568

13.4.2 Blade passing Frequency (BPF) 569

13.4.3 Fan Efficiency 571

13.4.4 Sound Power and Frequency Content of Fans 573

13.4.5 Sound Power Levels of Fans and Predictions 574

13.4.6 Prediction of Fan Sound Power Level 575

13.4.7 Importance of Proper Installation of Centrifugal Fans 577

13.4.8 Terminal Units (CAV, VAV, and Fan-Powered VAV Boxes) 579

13.5 Space Planning 581

13.6 Mechanical Room Noise and Vibration Control 583

13.6.1 Use of Floating Floors 584

13.6.2 Vibration Control of Equipment 588

13.6.3 Selection of Vibration Isolators 588

13.6.4 Vibration Isolation of Ducts, Pipes, and Wiring 596

13.7 Sound Attenuation in Ventilation Systems 598

13.7.1 Use of Fiberglass in Plenum Chambers, Mufflers, and HVAC Ducts 598

13.7.2 Attenuation of Plenum Chambers 598

13.7.3 Duct Attenuation 603

13.7.4 Sound Attenuators (Silencers) 607

13.7.5 Branches and Power Splits 609

13.7.6 Attenuation Due to End Reflection 610

13.7.7 Attenuation by Miter Bends 613

13.8 Sound Generation in Mechanical Systems 614

13.8.1 Elbow Noise 614

13.8.2 Take-off Noise 617

13.8.3 Grille Noise 618

13.8.4 Diffuser Noise 620

13.8.5 Damper Noise 620

13.9 Radiated Noise 621

13.9.1 Duct-Radiated Noise 623

13.9.2 Sound Breakout and Breakin From Ducts 624

13.9.3 Mixing Box Radiated Noise 627

13.9.4 Radiation From Fan Plenum Walls 628

13.9.5 Overall Sound Pressure Level Prediction 628

References 631

14 Surface Transportation Noise and Vibration Sources and Control 633

14.1 Introduction 633

14.2 Automobile and Truck Noise Sources and Control 633

14.2.1 Power Plant Noise and Its Control 635

14.2.2 Intake and Exhaust Noise and Muffler Design 639

14.2.3 Tire/Road Noise Sources and Control 640

14.2.4 Aerodynamic Noise Sources on Vehicles 642

14.2.5 Gearbox Noise and Vibration 643

14.2.6 Brake Noise Prediction and Control 644

14.3 Interior Road Vehicle Cabin Noise 644

14.3.1 Automobiles and Trucks 644

14.3.2 Off-Road Vehicles 649

14.4 Railroad and Rapid Transit Vehicle Noise and Vibration Sources 650

14.4.1 Wheel-Rail Interaction Noise 650

14.4.2 Interior Rail Vehicle Cabin Noise 651

14.5 Noise And Vibration Control in Ships 654

References 656

15 Aircraft and Airport Transportation Noise Sources and Control 661

15.1 Introduction 661

15.2 Jet Engine Noise Sources and Control 661

15.3 Propeller and Rotor Noise Sources and Control 663

15.4 Helicopter and Rotor Noise 663

15.5 Aircraft Cabin Noise and Vibration and Its Control 666

15.5.1 Passive Noise and Vibration Control 666

15.5.2 Active Noise and Vibration Control 668

15.6 Airport Noise Control 669

15.6.1 Noise Control at the Source 669

15.6.2 Airport-specific Noise Control Measures 670

References 673

16 Community Noise and Vibration Sources 677

16.1 Introduction 677

16.2 Assessment of Community Noise Annoyance 677

16.3 Community Noise and Vibration Sources and Control 680

16.3.1 Traffic Noise Sources 680

16.3.2 Rail System Noise Sources 683

16.3.3 Ground-Borne Vibration Transmission from Road and Rail Systems 683

16.3.4 Aircraft and Airport Noise Prediction and Control 684

16.3.5 Off-road Vehicle and Construction Equipment Exterior Noise Prediction and Control 687

16.3.6 Industrial and Commercial Noise in the Community 688

16.3.7 Construction and Building Site Noise 688

16.4 Environmental Impact Assessment 689

16.5 Environmental Noise and Vibration Attenuation 690

16.5.1 Attenuation Provided by Barriers, Earth Berms, Buildings, and Vegetation 690

16.5.2 Base Isolation of Buildings for Control of Ground-Borne Vibration 692

16.5.3 Noise Control Using Porous Road Surfaces 693

16.6 City Planning for Noise and Vibration Reduction and Soundscape Concepts 694

16.6.1 Community Noise Ordinances 694

16.6.2 Recommendations for Urban Projects 697

16.6.3 Strategic Noise Maps 697

16.6.4 Soundscapes 698

References 699

Glossary 705

Index 737
Malcolm J. Crocker obtained his Bachelors degree in Aeronautical Engineering and Masters degree in Noise and Vibration Studies from Southampton University and his PhD in Acoustics from Liverpool University. He worked at Supermarine and Vickers Armstrong Aircraft, UK, and at Wyle Labs, Huntsville, USA on the Lunar Saturn V launch noise. He has held full professor positions at Purdue, Sydney, and Auburn. At Auburn he served as Mechanical Engineering Department Head and Distinguished University Professor. He has published over 300 papers in refereed journals and conference proceedings and written eight books including the award-winning Encyclopedia of Acoustics, Handbook of Acoustics, and Handbook of Noise and Vibration Control for Wiley. Crocker served as one of the four founding directors of I-INCE and one of the four founding directors of IIAV. He was general chair of INTER-NOISE 72. He served for 40 years as Editor-in-Chief of the Noise Control Engineering Journal and the International Journal of Acoustics and Vibration. He has numerous awards including three honorary doctorates in Russia and Romania and is fellow and/or distinguished fellow of ASA, IIAV and ASME. He received the 2017 ASME Per Bruel Gold Medal for contributions to noise control and acoustics.

Jorge P. Arenas, Professor and former director of the Institute of Acoustics, University Austral of Chile, and Fellow of the International Institute of Acoustics and Vibration (IIAV). He received a degree in Acoustical Engineering in 1988 and his MSc in Physics in 1996 both from Univ. Austral, Chile. In 2001, he obtained a PhD in Mechanical Engineering from Auburn University in the USA. He also gained professional experience at the Institute of Acoustics in Madrid, Spain, and at the University of Southampton in the UK. He has served as the President of the IIAV (2016-2018) and he is currently the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Acoustics and Vibration and a member of the editorial board of the journals Shock and Vibration and Applied Acoustics.

M. J. Crocker, Auburn University; J. P. Arenas, University Austral, Chile