Liquid Biofuels
Fundamentals, Characterization, and Applications
1. Edition August 2021
752 Pages, Hardcover
Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISBN:
978-1-119-79198-0
John Wiley & Sons
Further versions
Compiled by a well-known expert in the field, Liquid Biofuels provides a profound knowledge to researchers about biofuel technologies, selection of raw materials, conversion of various biomass to biofuel pathways, selection of suitable methods of conversion, design of equipment, selection of operating parameters, determination of chemical kinetics, reaction mechanism, preparation of bio-catalyst: its application in bio-fuel industry and characterization techniques, use of nanotechnology in the production of biofuels from the root level to its application and many other exclusive topics for conducting research in this area.
Written with the objective of offering both theoretical concepts and practical applications of those concepts, Liquid Biofuels can be both a first-time learning experience for the student facing these issues in a classroom and a valuable reference work for the veteran engineer or scientist. The description of the detailed characterization methodologies along with the precautions required during analysis are extremely important, as are the detailed description about the ultrasound assisted biodiesel production techniques, aviation biofuels and its characterization techniques, advance in algal biofuel techniques, pre-treatment of biomass for biofuel production, preparation and characterization of bio-catalyst, and various methods of optimization.
The book offers a comparative study between the various liquid biofuels obtained from different methods of production and its engine performance and emission analysis so that one can get the utmost idea to find the better biofuel as an alternative fuel. Since the book covers almost all the field of liquid biofuel production techniques, it will provide advanced knowledge to the researcher for practical applications across the energy sector.
A valuable reference for engineers, scientists, chemists, and students, this volume is applicable to many different fields, across many different industries, at all levels. It is a must-have for any library.
Preface xxi
1 Introduction to Biomass to Biofuels Technologies 1
Ezgi Rojda Taymaz, Mehmet Emin Uslu and Irem Deniz
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass and Its Composition 2
1.2.1 Cellulose 3
1.2.2 Hemicellulose 4
1.2.3 Lignin 5
1.3 Types and Category of the Biomass 6
1.3.1 Marine Biomass 6
1.3.2 Forestry Residue and Crops 7
1.3.3 Animal Manure 7
1.3.4 Industrial Waste 8
1.4 Methods of Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Biofuels 8
1.4.1 Pyrolysis and Types of the Pyrolysis Processes 9
1.4.2 Types of Reactors Used in Pyrolysis 12
1.4.2.1 Bubble Fluidized Bed Reactor 12
1.4.2.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed and Transport Bed Reactor 12
1.4.2.3 Ablative Pyrolysis Reactor 14
1.4.2.4 Rotary Cone Reactor 14
1.4.3 Chemical Conversion 14
1.4.4 Electrochemical Conversion 14
1.4.5 Biochemical Methods 16
1.4.6 Co-Conversion Methods of Pyrolysis (Copyrolysis) 16
1.5 Bioethanol and Biobutanol Conversion Techniques 16
1.6 Biogas and Syngas Conversion Techniques 20
1.7 Advantages and Drawbacks of Biofuels 23
1.8 Applications of Biofuels 25
1.9 Future Prospects 26
1.10 Conclusion 27
References 29
2 Advancements of Cavitation Technology in Biodiesel Production - from Fundamental Concept to Commercial Scale-Up 39
Ritesh S. Malani, Vijayanand S. Moholkar, Nimir O. Elbashir and Hanif A. Choudhury
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Principles of Ultrasound and Cavitation 43
2.3 Intensification of Biodiesel Production Processes Through Cavitational Reactors 45
2.3.1 Acoustic Cavitation (or Ultrasound Irradiation) Assisted Processes 46
2.3.2 Acoustic or Ultrasonic Cavitation Assisted Processes 46
2.4 Designing the Cavitation Reactors 59
2.5 Scale-Up of Cavitational Reactors 63
2.6 Application of Cavitational Reactors for Large-Scale Biodiesel Production 66
2.7 Future Prospects and Challenges 67
References 67
3 Heterogeneous Catalyst for Pyrolysis and Biodiesel Production 77
Anjana P Anantharaman and Niju Subramania Pillai
3.1 Biodiesel Production 78
3.1.1 Homogeneous Catalyst 79
3.1.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst 80
3.1.3 Natural Catalyst 84
3.1.4 Catalyst Characterization 88
3.1.4.1 Morphology and Surface Property 88
3.1.4.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 88
3.1.4.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 90
3.1.4.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 91
3.1.4.5 Temperature Programmed Desorption (TPD) 91
3.1.4.6 X-Ray Photoemission Spectroscopy (XPS) 92
3.1.5 Kinetics of Biodiesel 93
3.2 Plastic Pyrolysis 97
3.2.1 Zeolite 99
3.2.2 Activated Carbon (AC) 103
3.2.3 Natural Catalyst 104
3.2.4 Characterization of Catalyst 107
3.2.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 107
3.2.4.2 Surface Characteristics 107
3.2.4.3 NH3-Temperature Programmed Desorption (NH3-TPD) 107
3.2.5 Pyrolysis Kinetics 111
3.3 Conclusion 113
References 114
4 Algal Biofuel: Emergent Applications in Next-Generation Biofuel Technology 119
Bidhu Bhusan Makut
4.1 Introduction 120
4.2 Burgeoning of Biofuel Resources 120
4.2.1 Potential Role of Microalgae Towards Biofuel Production 121
4.3 Common Steps Adopted for Microalgal Biofuel Production 122
4.3.1 Screening and Development of Robust Microalgal Strain 122
4.3.2 Cultivation for Algal Biomass Production 123
4.3.3 Harvesting of Microalgae Biomass 127
4.3.4 Dewatering and Drying Process 127
4.3.5 Extraction and Purification of Lipids from Microalgal Biomass for Biodiesel Production 130
4.3.6 Microalgal Biomass Conversion Technology Towards Different Types of Biofuel Production 130
4.3.6.1 Chemical Conversion 131
4.3.6.2 Biochemical Conversion 132
4.3.6.3 Thermochemical Conversion 134
4.3.6.4 Direct Conversion 136
4.4 Types of Microalgal Biofuels and their Emerging Applications 137
4.4.1 Biodiesel 137
4.4.2 Bioethanol 139
4.4.3 Biogas 140
4.4.4 Bio-Oil 140
4.5 Conclusion 141
References 141
5 Co-Liquefaction of Biomass to Biofuels 145
Gerardo Martínez-Narro and Anh N. Phan
5.1 Introduction 145
5.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) 147
5.2.1 Background 147
5.2.2 Operating Parameters Affecting HTL Process 149
5.3 Co-Liquefaction of Biomass 151
5.3.1 Food Waste with Others 151
5.3.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass with Others 162
5.3.3 Biomass with Crude Glycerol 163
5.3.4 Algal Biomass with Others 164
5.3.5 Sludge with Others 168
5.3.6 Biomass with Plastic Waste 169
5.4 Current Development, Challenges and Future Perspectives 171
5.5 Conclusions 174
Acknowledgments 174
References 174
6 Biomass to Bio Jet Fuels: A Take Off to the Aviation Industry 183
Anjani R K Gollakota, Anil Kumar Thandlam and Chi-Min Shu
6.1 Introduction 184
6.2 The Transition of Biomass to Biofuels 185
6.3 Properties of Aviation Jet Fuel (Bio-Jet Fuel) 187
6.4 Fuel Specification for Civil Aviation 188
6.5 Choice of Feedstock (Renewable Sources) 192
6.5.1 Camelina 192
6.5.2 Jatropha 192
6.5.3 Wastes 193
6.5.4 Algae 193
6.5.5 Halophytes 193
6.5.6 Fiber Feedstock 193
6.6 Pathways of Biomass to Bio-Jet Fuels 194
6.6.1 Hydrogenated Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) 194
6.6.2 Catalytic Hydrothermolysis (CH) 195
6.6.3 Hydro Processed Depolymerized Cellulosic Jet (HDCJ) 195
6.6.4 Fischer-Tropsch Process (FT) 196
6.6.5 Lignin to Jet 197
6.6.6 Direct Sugars to Hydrocarbons (DSHC) 202
6.6.7 Aqueous Phase Reforming (APR) 203
6.6.8 Alcohol to Bio-Jet 203
6.7 Challenges Associates with the Future of Bio-Jet Fuel Development 204
6.7.1 Ecological Challenges 204
6.7.2 Feedstock Availability and Sustainability 205
6.7.3 Production Challenge 205
6.7.4 Distribution Challenge 205
6.7.5 Compatibility Issues 206
6.8 Future Perspective 206
6.9 Conclusion 207
Acknowledgements 209
References 209
7 Advance in Bioethanol Technology: Production and Characterization 215
Soumya Sasmal and Kaustubha Mohanty
7.1 Introduction 216
7.2 Production Technology of Ethanol and Global Players 218
7.3 Microbiology of Bioethanol Production 220
7.4 Fermentation Technology 222
7.5 Downstream Process 224
7.5.1 Distillation 224
7.5.2 Molecular Sieves 225
7.6 Ethanol Analysis 225
7.6.1 Gas Chromatography 225
7.6.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 226
7.6.3 Infrared Spectroscopy 226
7.6.4 Olfactometry 226
7.7 Conclusion 227
References 228
8 Effect of Process Parameters on the Production of Pyrolytic Products from Biomass Through Pyrolysis 231
Ranjeet Kumar Mishra and Kaustubha Mohanty
8.1 Introduction 232
8.2 Biomass to Energy Conversion Technologies 233
8.2.1 Biochemical Conversion of Biomass 233
8.2.2 Thermochemical Conversion (TCC) of Biomass 234
8.2.2.1 Combustion 235
8.2.2.2 Gasification 235
8.2.2.3 Pyrolysis 236
8.2.2.4 Liquefaction 236
8.2.2.5 Carbonization and Co-Firing 240
8.2.3 Comparison of Thermochemical Conversion Techniques 240
8.3 Advantages of Pyrolysis 241
8.4 Effect of Processing Parameters on Liquid Oil Yield 242
8.4.1 Temperature 242
8.4.2 Effect of Catalysts on Pyrolytic End Products 243
8.4.3 Vapour Residence Times 249
8.4.4 Size of Feed Particles 255
8.4.5 Effect of Heating Rates 256
8.4.6 Effect of Atmospheric Gas 257
8.4.7 Effect of Biomass Type 262
8.4.8 Effect of Mineral 262
8.4.9 Effect of Moisture Contents 264
8.4.10 Effect of Bed Height and Bed Thickness 264
8.5 Types of Reactors 266
8.5.1 Fixed Bed Reactor 266
8.5.2 Fluidized Bed Reactor 266
8.5.3 Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB) Reactor 267
8.5.4 Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) Reactors 267
8.5.5 Ablative Reactor 268
8.5.6 Vacuum Pyrolysis Reactor 268
8.5.7 Rotating Cone Reactor 269
8.5.8 PyRos Reactor 270
8.5.9 Auger Reactor 270
8.5.10 Plasma Reactor 271
8.5.11 Microwave Reactor 272
8.5.12 Solar Reactor 272
8.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Types of Reactors 272
8.7 Conclusion 274
Acknowledgements 275
References 275
9 Thermo-Catalytic Conversion of Non-Edible Seeds (Extractive-Rich Biomass) to Fuel Oil 285
Nilutpal Bhuyan, Neelam Bora, Rumi Narzari, Kabita Boruah and Rupam Kataki
9.1 Introduction 286
9.2 Thermochemical Technologies for Liquid Biofuel Production 289
9.2.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction 289
9.2.2 Pyrolysis and Its Classification 292
9.3 Feedstock Classification for Biofuel Production 293
9.3.1 Agricultural Crops and Residues 294
9.3.2 Municipal and Industrial Wastes 294
9.3.3 Animal Wastes 295
9.3.4 Undesirable Plants or Weeds 295
9.3.5 Forest Wood and Residues 296
9.3.5.1 Non-Edible Oil Seeds: A Potential Feedstock for Liquid Fuel Production 296
9.3.5.2 Non-Edible Oil Seeds and Worldwide Availability 297
9.4 Characterization of Non-Edible Oil Seeds 310
9.5 Thermal Degradation Profile of Different Non-Edible Seeds 320
9.6 Preparation of Raw Materials for Pyrolysis 322
9.7 Catalytic and Non-Catalytic Thermal Conversion for Liquid Fuel Production 323
9.7.1 Non-Catalytic Pyrolysis 323
9.7.1.1 CHNSO Analysis of Seed Pyrolytic Oil 326
9.7.1.2 FTIR Analysis of Seed Pyrolytic Oil 326
9.8 Need for Up-Gradation of Pyrolytic Oil 329
9.8.1 Catalytic Pyrolysis 329
9.9 Application of Catalyst in Pyrolysis of Non-Edible Biomass 330
9.10 Effect of Parameters on Liquid Fuel Production 330
9.10.1 Effect of Operating Parameters on Yield 330
9.10.2 Effect of Temperature 339
9.10.3 Heating Rates 340
9.10.4 Effect of Flow of Sweeping Gas 340
9.10.5 Effect of Particle Size 341
9.10.6 Effect of Catalyst on Yield 341
9.10.7 Influence of Catalysts on Oil Composition 342
9.10.8 Effect of Catalyst Bed on Yield 343
9.10.9 Effect of Catalyst on Fuel Properties of Pyrolytic Oil 343
9.11 Fuel Properties of Thermal and Catalytic Pyrolytic Oil 343
9.12 Challenges in Utilization of Nonedible Oil Seed in Themocatalytic Conversion Process 345
9.13 Advantages and Drawbacks of Seed Pyrolytic Oils 346
9.14 Precautions Associated with the Application of Biofuel 347
9.15 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 348
References 350
10 Suitability of Oil Seed Residues as a Potential Source of Bio-Fuels and Bioenergy 361
Vikranth Volli, Randeep Singh, Krushna Prasad Shadangi and Chi-Min Shu
10.1 Introduction 362
10.2 Biomass Conversion Processes 363
10.3 Biomass to Bioenergy via Thermal Pyrolysis 367
10.3.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis 367
10.3.2 Thermal Pyrolysis 368
10.4 Physicochemical Characterization of Bio-Oil 370
10.4.1 Physical Properties 370
10.4.2 FTIR Analysis 371
10.4.3 GC-MS Analysis 372
10.5 Engine Performance Analysis 384
10.5.1 Break Thermal Efficiency (BTE) 384
10.5.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) 384
10.5.3 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) 385
10.6 Future Prospects and Recommendations 386
10.7 Conclusion 387
Acknowledgments 387
References 387
11 Co-Conversion of Algal Biomass to Biofuel 391
Abhishek Walia, Chayanika Putatunda, Preeti Solanki, Shruti Pathania and Ravi Kant Bhatia
11.1 Introduction 392
11.2 Mechanism of Co-Pyrolysis Process 394
11.2.1 Major Types of Pyrolysis and Co-Pyrolysis 396
11.3 Factors Impacting Co-Pyrolysis 398
11.3.1 Composition of Co-Pyrolysis Substrates and the Products Obtained in Co-Pyrolysis 398
11.3.2 Main Reactor Types Used During Biomass Co-Pyrolysis and the Process Conditions/Parameters 399
11.3.2.1 Classification of Biomass (Co) Pyrolysis Bioreactors 401
11.3.3 The Role of Catalysts in Biomass Co-Pyrolysis 405
11.3.3.1 Catalytic Hydrotreating 405
11.3.3.2 Types of Catalysts Available 407
11.3.3.3 Factors Affecting the Performance of Catalysts 409
11.3.3.4 Mechanisms of Deactivation of Catalysts 410
11.3.3.5 Catalytic Upgradation of Bio-Oil with Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) 410
11.4 Recent Advances and Studies on Co-Pyrolysis of Biomass and Different Substrates 411
11.5 Effect between Biomass and Different Substrates in Co-Pyrolysis 412
11.5.1 Increased Bio-Oil Yield 413
11.5.1.1 Type of Substrate 413
11.5.1.2 Particle Size 414
11.5.1.3 Temperature 415
11.5.1.4 Substrate to Biomass Ratio 416
11.5.1.5 Residence Time 417
11.5.2 Improved Oil Quality 417
11.5.2.1 Influence of Bioreactor 417
11.5.2.2 Influence of Catalyst 418
11.5.3 Effect of Biomass-Different Substrates Co-Pyrolysis on By-Products 420
11.5.3.1 Microalgae and Plastic Waste 420
11.5.3.2 Microalgae and Coal 423
11.5.3.3 Microalgae and Tires 424
11.6 Future Perspectives 425
11.7 Conclusion 427
References 428
12 Pyrolysis of Caryota Urens Seeds: Fuel Properties and Compositional Analysis 441
Midhun Prasad Kothandaraman and Murugavelh Somasundaram
12.1 Introduction 442
12.2 Types of Pyrolysis Reactor 443
12.2.1 Fluidized Bed Reactor 443
12.2.2 Fixed Bed Reactor 444
12.2.3 Auger Reactor 445
12.2.4 Rotating Cone Pyrolysis Reactor 446
12.3 Materials and Methods 447
12.3.1 Feedstock Preparation and Collection 447
12.3.2 Tubular Reactor for Conversion of Caryota Ures Seeds to Bio Oil 447
12.4 Product Analysis 448
12.4.1 Characterization of Feedstock and Oil Yield 448
12.5 Kinetic Modelling 449
12.5.1 Kissinger Method for Activation Energy Calculation 450
12.5.2 Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS) Method for Activation Energy Calculation 450
12.5.3 Ozawa-Flynn-Wall (OFW) Method for Activation Energy Calculation 450
12.6 Result and Discussion 451
12.6.1 Characterization of Feedstock 451
12.6.2 Product Yield 452
12.6.3 FTIR of Bio Oil 452
12.6.4 GCMS of Bio Oil 453
12.6.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis of Caryota Urens 456
12.6.6 Activation Energy Calculation Using Isoconversional Models 459
12.6.6.1 Kissinger Method for Estimation of Activation Energy 459
12.6.6.2 KAS Method for Estimation of Activation Energy 460
12.6.6.3 The OFW Method 460
12.7 Conclusion 462
Acknowledgements 463
Nomenclature 463
References 463
13 Bio-Butanol as Biofuels: The Present and Future Scope 467
Seim Timung, Harsimranpreet Singh and Anshika Annu
13.1 Introduction 467
13.2 Butanol Global Market 469
13.3 History of ABE Fermentation 469
13.4 Feedstocks 470
13.4.1 Non-Lignocellulosic Feedstock 470
13.4.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass 471
13.4.3 Algae 472
13.4.4 Waste Sources 474
13.4.5 Glycerol 475
13.5 Pretreatment Techniques 476
13.5.1 Acid Pretreatment 476
13.5.2 Alkali Pretreatment 477
13.5.3 Organosolvent Pretreatment 477
13.5.4 Other Pretreatment 478
13.6 Fermentation Techniques 478
13.7 Conclusion 479
References 480
14 Application of Nanotechnology in the Production of Biofuel 487
Trinath Biswal and Krushna Prasad Shadangi
14.1 Introduction 488
14.2 Various Nanoparticles Used for Production of Biofuel 489
14.2.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles 489
14.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 491
14.2.3 Graphene and Graphene Derived Nanomaterial for Biofuel 493
14.2.4 Other Nanoparticles Applied in Heterogeneous Catalysis for Biofuel Production 495
14.3 Factors Affecting the Performance of Nanoparticles in the Manufacturing Process of Biofuel 495
14.3.1 Nanoparticle Synthesis Temperature 496
14.3.2 Pressure During Synthesis of Nanoparticle 496
14.3.3 pH Influencing Synthesis of Nanoparticles 496
14.3.4 Size of Nanoparticles 496
14.4 Role of Nanomaterials in the Synthesis of Biofuels 496
14.5 Utilization of Nanomaterials for the Production of Biofuel 497
14.5.1 Production of Biodiesel Using Nanocatalysts 497
14.5.2 Application of Nanomaterials for the Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 500
14.5.3 Application of Nanomaterials in Synthesis of Cellulase and Stability 501
14.5.4 Application of Nano-Materials in the Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass 501
14.5.5 Bio-Ethanol Production by Using Nanotechnology 502
14.5.6 Application of Nanotechnology in the Production of Bio-Ethanol or Cellulosic Ethanol 506
14.5.7 Up-Gradation of Biofuel by Using Nanotechnology 508
14.5.8 Use of Nanoparticles in Biorefinery 509
14.6 Conclusion 510
References 511
15 Experimental Investigation of Long Run Viability of Engine Oil Properties in DI Diesel Engine Fuelled with Diesel, Bioethanol and Biodiesel Blend 517
Dulari Hansdah and S. Murugan
15.1 Introduction 518
15.2 Materials and Method 519
15.2.1 Fuel Properties 520
15.3 Test Procedure 522
15.3.1 Engine Experimental Set Up 522
15.3.2 Methodology 525
15.4 Result Analysis 528
15.4.1 Wear Measurements of Different Components 528
15.4.2 Deposits of Carbon on the Various Engine Components 532
15.4.2.1 Cylinder Head and Piston Crown 532
15.4.2.2 Analysis Deposits on Fuel Injector 533
15.4.3 Analysis of Lubricating Oil 533
15.4.3.1 Effect of Crankcase Dilution 533
15.4.3.2 Analysis of Wear of Metals from Different Components 537
15.5 Conclusion 541
References 541
16 Studies on the Diesel Blends Oxidative Stability in Mixture with TBHQ Antioxidant and Soft Computation Approach Using ANN and RSM at Varying Blend Ratio 543
Ramesh Kasimani
16.1 Introduction 544
16.2 Materials and Methodology 545
16.2.1 Bio-Diesel Preparation and its Properties 545
16.2.2 Antioxidant Reagent 547
16.2.3 GC-MS Analysis 547
16.2.4 Oxidation Stability Determination 547
16.2.5 Uncertainty Analysis 548
16.2.6 Experimental Setup and Test Procedure 552
16.2.7 Response Surface Methodology 552
16.2.8 Artificial Neural Network 554
16.3 Results and Discussion 555
16.3.1 Oxidation Stability Analysis 555
16.3.2 Performance and Emission Characteristics of CIB Diesel Blends 556
16.3.3 Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption 556
16.3.4 Brake Thermal Efficiency 559
16.3.5 Carbon Monoxide 560
16.3.6 Hydrocarbon 561
16.3.7 Nitrogen Oxides 561
16.3.8 Carbon Dioxide 562
16.3.9 Performance and Emission Characteristics of CIB Diesel Blends + TBHQ 563
16.3.10 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption 563
16.3.11 Brake Thermal Efficiency 567
16.3.12 Carbon Monoxide 567
16.3.13 Hydrocarbon 568
16.3.14 Nitrogen Oxides 568
16.3.15 Carbon Dioxide 569
16.4 Response Surface Methodology for Performance Parameter 570
16.4.1 Non-Linear Regression Model for Performance Parameter 570
16.4.2 Fit Summary for BSFC 571
16.4.3 ANOVA for Performance Parameters 571
16.4.4 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for BSFC 571
16.4.5 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for BTE 576
16.4.6 Non-Linear Regression Model for Emission Parameter 578
16.4.7 Fit Summary for Emission Parameters 578
16.4.8 ANOVA for Emission Parameters 580
16.4.9 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for CO 586
16.4.10 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for HC 591
16.4.11 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for NOx 591
16.4.12 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for CO2 592
16.5 Modelling of ANN 593
16.5.1 Prediction of Performance Characteristics 596
16.5.2 Prediction of Emission Characteristics 597
16.6 Validation of RSM and ANN 599
16.7 Conclusion 606
References 608
17 Effect of Nanoparticles in Bio-Oil on the Performance, Combustion and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine 613
V.Dhana Raju, S.Rami Reddy, Harish Venu, Lingesan Subramani and Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar
17.1 Introduction 614
17.2 Materials and Methods 618
17.2.1 Waste Mango Seed Oil Extraction 618
17.2.2 Transesterification Process 619
17.2.3 Preparation of Alumina Nanoparticles 621
17.3 Experimental Setup 621
17.3.1 Error and Uncertainty Analysis 622
17.4 Results and Discussion 623
17.4.1 Mango Seed Biodiesel Yield 623
17.4.2 Characterization of Alumina Nanoparticles 624
17.4.3 Diverse Characteristics of Diesel Engine 625
17.4.3.1 Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) 626
17.4.3.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) 627
17.4.3.3 Cylinder Pressure (CP) 628
17.4.3.4 Heat Release Rate (HRR) 629
17.4.3.5 Carbon Monoxide Emissions (CO) 629
17.4.3.6 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (CO2) 630
17.4.3.7 Hydrocarbons Emissions (HC) 630
17.4.3.8 Nitrogen Oxides Emissions (NOX) 632
17.4.3.9 Smoke Opacity (SO) 632
17.5 Conclusions 633
Abbreviations 634
Nomenclature 634
References 635
18 Use of Optimization Techniques to Study the Engine Performance and Emission Analysis of Diesel Engine 639
Sakthivel R, Mohanraj T, Abbhijith H and Ganesh Kumar P
18.1 Introduction 640
18.1.1 Engine Performance Optimization 644
18.2 Engine Parameter Optimization Using Taguchi's S/N 645
18.3 Engine Parameter Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology 649
18.3.1 Analysis of Variance 652
18.4 Artificial Neural Networks 653
18.5 Genetic Algorithm 659
18.6 TOPSIS Algorithm 662
18.6.1 TOPSIS Method for Optimizing Engine Parameters 666
18.7 Grey Relational Analysis 669
18.8 Fuzzy Optimization 674
18.9 Conclusion 675
Abbreviations 676
References 676
19 Engine Performance and Emission Analysis of Biodiesel-Diesel and Biomass Pyrolytic Oil-Diesel Blended Oil: A Comparative Study 681
K. Adithya, C.M Jagadesh Kumar, C.G. Mohan, R. Prakash and N. Gunasekar
19.1 Introduction 682
19.2 Experimental Analysis 683
19.2.1 Production of Coconut Shell Pyrolysis Oil 683
19.2.2 Production of JME 685
19.3 Experimental Set-Up 685
19.3.1 Engine Specifications 686
19.3.2 Error Analysis 686
19.4 Results and Discussion 687
19.4.1 Performance Parameters 687
19.4.1.1 Brake Thermal Efficiency 687
19.4.1.2 BSFC 688
19.4.1.3 Exhaust Gas Temperature 688
19.4.2 Emission Parameters 689
19.4.2.1 Carbon Monoxide 689
19.4.2.2 Hydrocarbons 689
19.4.2.3 NOx Emissions 691
19.4.2.4 Smoke Opacity 691
19.5 Conclusion 692
References 693
20 Agro-Waste for Second-Generation Biofuels 697
Prakash Kumar Sarangi and Mousumi Meghamala Nayak
20.1 Introduction 697
20.2 Agro-Wastes 699
20.3 Value-Addition of Agro-Wastes 700
20.4 Production of Second-Generation Biofuels 702
20.4.1 Biogas 702
20.4.2 Biohydrogen 702
20.4.3 Bioethanol 703
20.4.4 Biobutanol 703
20.4.5 Biomethanol 704
20.4.6 Conclusion 705
References 706
Index 711
1 Introduction to Biomass to Biofuels Technologies 1
Ezgi Rojda Taymaz, Mehmet Emin Uslu and Irem Deniz
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass and Its Composition 2
1.2.1 Cellulose 3
1.2.2 Hemicellulose 4
1.2.3 Lignin 5
1.3 Types and Category of the Biomass 6
1.3.1 Marine Biomass 6
1.3.2 Forestry Residue and Crops 7
1.3.3 Animal Manure 7
1.3.4 Industrial Waste 8
1.4 Methods of Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Biofuels 8
1.4.1 Pyrolysis and Types of the Pyrolysis Processes 9
1.4.2 Types of Reactors Used in Pyrolysis 12
1.4.2.1 Bubble Fluidized Bed Reactor 12
1.4.2.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed and Transport Bed Reactor 12
1.4.2.3 Ablative Pyrolysis Reactor 14
1.4.2.4 Rotary Cone Reactor 14
1.4.3 Chemical Conversion 14
1.4.4 Electrochemical Conversion 14
1.4.5 Biochemical Methods 16
1.4.6 Co-Conversion Methods of Pyrolysis (Copyrolysis) 16
1.5 Bioethanol and Biobutanol Conversion Techniques 16
1.6 Biogas and Syngas Conversion Techniques 20
1.7 Advantages and Drawbacks of Biofuels 23
1.8 Applications of Biofuels 25
1.9 Future Prospects 26
1.10 Conclusion 27
References 29
2 Advancements of Cavitation Technology in Biodiesel Production - from Fundamental Concept to Commercial Scale-Up 39
Ritesh S. Malani, Vijayanand S. Moholkar, Nimir O. Elbashir and Hanif A. Choudhury
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Principles of Ultrasound and Cavitation 43
2.3 Intensification of Biodiesel Production Processes Through Cavitational Reactors 45
2.3.1 Acoustic Cavitation (or Ultrasound Irradiation) Assisted Processes 46
2.3.2 Acoustic or Ultrasonic Cavitation Assisted Processes 46
2.4 Designing the Cavitation Reactors 59
2.5 Scale-Up of Cavitational Reactors 63
2.6 Application of Cavitational Reactors for Large-Scale Biodiesel Production 66
2.7 Future Prospects and Challenges 67
References 67
3 Heterogeneous Catalyst for Pyrolysis and Biodiesel Production 77
Anjana P Anantharaman and Niju Subramania Pillai
3.1 Biodiesel Production 78
3.1.1 Homogeneous Catalyst 79
3.1.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst 80
3.1.3 Natural Catalyst 84
3.1.4 Catalyst Characterization 88
3.1.4.1 Morphology and Surface Property 88
3.1.4.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 88
3.1.4.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 90
3.1.4.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 91
3.1.4.5 Temperature Programmed Desorption (TPD) 91
3.1.4.6 X-Ray Photoemission Spectroscopy (XPS) 92
3.1.5 Kinetics of Biodiesel 93
3.2 Plastic Pyrolysis 97
3.2.1 Zeolite 99
3.2.2 Activated Carbon (AC) 103
3.2.3 Natural Catalyst 104
3.2.4 Characterization of Catalyst 107
3.2.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 107
3.2.4.2 Surface Characteristics 107
3.2.4.3 NH3-Temperature Programmed Desorption (NH3-TPD) 107
3.2.5 Pyrolysis Kinetics 111
3.3 Conclusion 113
References 114
4 Algal Biofuel: Emergent Applications in Next-Generation Biofuel Technology 119
Bidhu Bhusan Makut
4.1 Introduction 120
4.2 Burgeoning of Biofuel Resources 120
4.2.1 Potential Role of Microalgae Towards Biofuel Production 121
4.3 Common Steps Adopted for Microalgal Biofuel Production 122
4.3.1 Screening and Development of Robust Microalgal Strain 122
4.3.2 Cultivation for Algal Biomass Production 123
4.3.3 Harvesting of Microalgae Biomass 127
4.3.4 Dewatering and Drying Process 127
4.3.5 Extraction and Purification of Lipids from Microalgal Biomass for Biodiesel Production 130
4.3.6 Microalgal Biomass Conversion Technology Towards Different Types of Biofuel Production 130
4.3.6.1 Chemical Conversion 131
4.3.6.2 Biochemical Conversion 132
4.3.6.3 Thermochemical Conversion 134
4.3.6.4 Direct Conversion 136
4.4 Types of Microalgal Biofuels and their Emerging Applications 137
4.4.1 Biodiesel 137
4.4.2 Bioethanol 139
4.4.3 Biogas 140
4.4.4 Bio-Oil 140
4.5 Conclusion 141
References 141
5 Co-Liquefaction of Biomass to Biofuels 145
Gerardo Martínez-Narro and Anh N. Phan
5.1 Introduction 145
5.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) 147
5.2.1 Background 147
5.2.2 Operating Parameters Affecting HTL Process 149
5.3 Co-Liquefaction of Biomass 151
5.3.1 Food Waste with Others 151
5.3.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass with Others 162
5.3.3 Biomass with Crude Glycerol 163
5.3.4 Algal Biomass with Others 164
5.3.5 Sludge with Others 168
5.3.6 Biomass with Plastic Waste 169
5.4 Current Development, Challenges and Future Perspectives 171
5.5 Conclusions 174
Acknowledgments 174
References 174
6 Biomass to Bio Jet Fuels: A Take Off to the Aviation Industry 183
Anjani R K Gollakota, Anil Kumar Thandlam and Chi-Min Shu
6.1 Introduction 184
6.2 The Transition of Biomass to Biofuels 185
6.3 Properties of Aviation Jet Fuel (Bio-Jet Fuel) 187
6.4 Fuel Specification for Civil Aviation 188
6.5 Choice of Feedstock (Renewable Sources) 192
6.5.1 Camelina 192
6.5.2 Jatropha 192
6.5.3 Wastes 193
6.5.4 Algae 193
6.5.5 Halophytes 193
6.5.6 Fiber Feedstock 193
6.6 Pathways of Biomass to Bio-Jet Fuels 194
6.6.1 Hydrogenated Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) 194
6.6.2 Catalytic Hydrothermolysis (CH) 195
6.6.3 Hydro Processed Depolymerized Cellulosic Jet (HDCJ) 195
6.6.4 Fischer-Tropsch Process (FT) 196
6.6.5 Lignin to Jet 197
6.6.6 Direct Sugars to Hydrocarbons (DSHC) 202
6.6.7 Aqueous Phase Reforming (APR) 203
6.6.8 Alcohol to Bio-Jet 203
6.7 Challenges Associates with the Future of Bio-Jet Fuel Development 204
6.7.1 Ecological Challenges 204
6.7.2 Feedstock Availability and Sustainability 205
6.7.3 Production Challenge 205
6.7.4 Distribution Challenge 205
6.7.5 Compatibility Issues 206
6.8 Future Perspective 206
6.9 Conclusion 207
Acknowledgements 209
References 209
7 Advance in Bioethanol Technology: Production and Characterization 215
Soumya Sasmal and Kaustubha Mohanty
7.1 Introduction 216
7.2 Production Technology of Ethanol and Global Players 218
7.3 Microbiology of Bioethanol Production 220
7.4 Fermentation Technology 222
7.5 Downstream Process 224
7.5.1 Distillation 224
7.5.2 Molecular Sieves 225
7.6 Ethanol Analysis 225
7.6.1 Gas Chromatography 225
7.6.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 226
7.6.3 Infrared Spectroscopy 226
7.6.4 Olfactometry 226
7.7 Conclusion 227
References 228
8 Effect of Process Parameters on the Production of Pyrolytic Products from Biomass Through Pyrolysis 231
Ranjeet Kumar Mishra and Kaustubha Mohanty
8.1 Introduction 232
8.2 Biomass to Energy Conversion Technologies 233
8.2.1 Biochemical Conversion of Biomass 233
8.2.2 Thermochemical Conversion (TCC) of Biomass 234
8.2.2.1 Combustion 235
8.2.2.2 Gasification 235
8.2.2.3 Pyrolysis 236
8.2.2.4 Liquefaction 236
8.2.2.5 Carbonization and Co-Firing 240
8.2.3 Comparison of Thermochemical Conversion Techniques 240
8.3 Advantages of Pyrolysis 241
8.4 Effect of Processing Parameters on Liquid Oil Yield 242
8.4.1 Temperature 242
8.4.2 Effect of Catalysts on Pyrolytic End Products 243
8.4.3 Vapour Residence Times 249
8.4.4 Size of Feed Particles 255
8.4.5 Effect of Heating Rates 256
8.4.6 Effect of Atmospheric Gas 257
8.4.7 Effect of Biomass Type 262
8.4.8 Effect of Mineral 262
8.4.9 Effect of Moisture Contents 264
8.4.10 Effect of Bed Height and Bed Thickness 264
8.5 Types of Reactors 266
8.5.1 Fixed Bed Reactor 266
8.5.2 Fluidized Bed Reactor 266
8.5.3 Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB) Reactor 267
8.5.4 Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) Reactors 267
8.5.5 Ablative Reactor 268
8.5.6 Vacuum Pyrolysis Reactor 268
8.5.7 Rotating Cone Reactor 269
8.5.8 PyRos Reactor 270
8.5.9 Auger Reactor 270
8.5.10 Plasma Reactor 271
8.5.11 Microwave Reactor 272
8.5.12 Solar Reactor 272
8.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Types of Reactors 272
8.7 Conclusion 274
Acknowledgements 275
References 275
9 Thermo-Catalytic Conversion of Non-Edible Seeds (Extractive-Rich Biomass) to Fuel Oil 285
Nilutpal Bhuyan, Neelam Bora, Rumi Narzari, Kabita Boruah and Rupam Kataki
9.1 Introduction 286
9.2 Thermochemical Technologies for Liquid Biofuel Production 289
9.2.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction 289
9.2.2 Pyrolysis and Its Classification 292
9.3 Feedstock Classification for Biofuel Production 293
9.3.1 Agricultural Crops and Residues 294
9.3.2 Municipal and Industrial Wastes 294
9.3.3 Animal Wastes 295
9.3.4 Undesirable Plants or Weeds 295
9.3.5 Forest Wood and Residues 296
9.3.5.1 Non-Edible Oil Seeds: A Potential Feedstock for Liquid Fuel Production 296
9.3.5.2 Non-Edible Oil Seeds and Worldwide Availability 297
9.4 Characterization of Non-Edible Oil Seeds 310
9.5 Thermal Degradation Profile of Different Non-Edible Seeds 320
9.6 Preparation of Raw Materials for Pyrolysis 322
9.7 Catalytic and Non-Catalytic Thermal Conversion for Liquid Fuel Production 323
9.7.1 Non-Catalytic Pyrolysis 323
9.7.1.1 CHNSO Analysis of Seed Pyrolytic Oil 326
9.7.1.2 FTIR Analysis of Seed Pyrolytic Oil 326
9.8 Need for Up-Gradation of Pyrolytic Oil 329
9.8.1 Catalytic Pyrolysis 329
9.9 Application of Catalyst in Pyrolysis of Non-Edible Biomass 330
9.10 Effect of Parameters on Liquid Fuel Production 330
9.10.1 Effect of Operating Parameters on Yield 330
9.10.2 Effect of Temperature 339
9.10.3 Heating Rates 340
9.10.4 Effect of Flow of Sweeping Gas 340
9.10.5 Effect of Particle Size 341
9.10.6 Effect of Catalyst on Yield 341
9.10.7 Influence of Catalysts on Oil Composition 342
9.10.8 Effect of Catalyst Bed on Yield 343
9.10.9 Effect of Catalyst on Fuel Properties of Pyrolytic Oil 343
9.11 Fuel Properties of Thermal and Catalytic Pyrolytic Oil 343
9.12 Challenges in Utilization of Nonedible Oil Seed in Themocatalytic Conversion Process 345
9.13 Advantages and Drawbacks of Seed Pyrolytic Oils 346
9.14 Precautions Associated with the Application of Biofuel 347
9.15 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 348
References 350
10 Suitability of Oil Seed Residues as a Potential Source of Bio-Fuels and Bioenergy 361
Vikranth Volli, Randeep Singh, Krushna Prasad Shadangi and Chi-Min Shu
10.1 Introduction 362
10.2 Biomass Conversion Processes 363
10.3 Biomass to Bioenergy via Thermal Pyrolysis 367
10.3.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis 367
10.3.2 Thermal Pyrolysis 368
10.4 Physicochemical Characterization of Bio-Oil 370
10.4.1 Physical Properties 370
10.4.2 FTIR Analysis 371
10.4.3 GC-MS Analysis 372
10.5 Engine Performance Analysis 384
10.5.1 Break Thermal Efficiency (BTE) 384
10.5.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) 384
10.5.3 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) 385
10.6 Future Prospects and Recommendations 386
10.7 Conclusion 387
Acknowledgments 387
References 387
11 Co-Conversion of Algal Biomass to Biofuel 391
Abhishek Walia, Chayanika Putatunda, Preeti Solanki, Shruti Pathania and Ravi Kant Bhatia
11.1 Introduction 392
11.2 Mechanism of Co-Pyrolysis Process 394
11.2.1 Major Types of Pyrolysis and Co-Pyrolysis 396
11.3 Factors Impacting Co-Pyrolysis 398
11.3.1 Composition of Co-Pyrolysis Substrates and the Products Obtained in Co-Pyrolysis 398
11.3.2 Main Reactor Types Used During Biomass Co-Pyrolysis and the Process Conditions/Parameters 399
11.3.2.1 Classification of Biomass (Co) Pyrolysis Bioreactors 401
11.3.3 The Role of Catalysts in Biomass Co-Pyrolysis 405
11.3.3.1 Catalytic Hydrotreating 405
11.3.3.2 Types of Catalysts Available 407
11.3.3.3 Factors Affecting the Performance of Catalysts 409
11.3.3.4 Mechanisms of Deactivation of Catalysts 410
11.3.3.5 Catalytic Upgradation of Bio-Oil with Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) 410
11.4 Recent Advances and Studies on Co-Pyrolysis of Biomass and Different Substrates 411
11.5 Effect between Biomass and Different Substrates in Co-Pyrolysis 412
11.5.1 Increased Bio-Oil Yield 413
11.5.1.1 Type of Substrate 413
11.5.1.2 Particle Size 414
11.5.1.3 Temperature 415
11.5.1.4 Substrate to Biomass Ratio 416
11.5.1.5 Residence Time 417
11.5.2 Improved Oil Quality 417
11.5.2.1 Influence of Bioreactor 417
11.5.2.2 Influence of Catalyst 418
11.5.3 Effect of Biomass-Different Substrates Co-Pyrolysis on By-Products 420
11.5.3.1 Microalgae and Plastic Waste 420
11.5.3.2 Microalgae and Coal 423
11.5.3.3 Microalgae and Tires 424
11.6 Future Perspectives 425
11.7 Conclusion 427
References 428
12 Pyrolysis of Caryota Urens Seeds: Fuel Properties and Compositional Analysis 441
Midhun Prasad Kothandaraman and Murugavelh Somasundaram
12.1 Introduction 442
12.2 Types of Pyrolysis Reactor 443
12.2.1 Fluidized Bed Reactor 443
12.2.2 Fixed Bed Reactor 444
12.2.3 Auger Reactor 445
12.2.4 Rotating Cone Pyrolysis Reactor 446
12.3 Materials and Methods 447
12.3.1 Feedstock Preparation and Collection 447
12.3.2 Tubular Reactor for Conversion of Caryota Ures Seeds to Bio Oil 447
12.4 Product Analysis 448
12.4.1 Characterization of Feedstock and Oil Yield 448
12.5 Kinetic Modelling 449
12.5.1 Kissinger Method for Activation Energy Calculation 450
12.5.2 Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS) Method for Activation Energy Calculation 450
12.5.3 Ozawa-Flynn-Wall (OFW) Method for Activation Energy Calculation 450
12.6 Result and Discussion 451
12.6.1 Characterization of Feedstock 451
12.6.2 Product Yield 452
12.6.3 FTIR of Bio Oil 452
12.6.4 GCMS of Bio Oil 453
12.6.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis of Caryota Urens 456
12.6.6 Activation Energy Calculation Using Isoconversional Models 459
12.6.6.1 Kissinger Method for Estimation of Activation Energy 459
12.6.6.2 KAS Method for Estimation of Activation Energy 460
12.6.6.3 The OFW Method 460
12.7 Conclusion 462
Acknowledgements 463
Nomenclature 463
References 463
13 Bio-Butanol as Biofuels: The Present and Future Scope 467
Seim Timung, Harsimranpreet Singh and Anshika Annu
13.1 Introduction 467
13.2 Butanol Global Market 469
13.3 History of ABE Fermentation 469
13.4 Feedstocks 470
13.4.1 Non-Lignocellulosic Feedstock 470
13.4.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass 471
13.4.3 Algae 472
13.4.4 Waste Sources 474
13.4.5 Glycerol 475
13.5 Pretreatment Techniques 476
13.5.1 Acid Pretreatment 476
13.5.2 Alkali Pretreatment 477
13.5.3 Organosolvent Pretreatment 477
13.5.4 Other Pretreatment 478
13.6 Fermentation Techniques 478
13.7 Conclusion 479
References 480
14 Application of Nanotechnology in the Production of Biofuel 487
Trinath Biswal and Krushna Prasad Shadangi
14.1 Introduction 488
14.2 Various Nanoparticles Used for Production of Biofuel 489
14.2.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles 489
14.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 491
14.2.3 Graphene and Graphene Derived Nanomaterial for Biofuel 493
14.2.4 Other Nanoparticles Applied in Heterogeneous Catalysis for Biofuel Production 495
14.3 Factors Affecting the Performance of Nanoparticles in the Manufacturing Process of Biofuel 495
14.3.1 Nanoparticle Synthesis Temperature 496
14.3.2 Pressure During Synthesis of Nanoparticle 496
14.3.3 pH Influencing Synthesis of Nanoparticles 496
14.3.4 Size of Nanoparticles 496
14.4 Role of Nanomaterials in the Synthesis of Biofuels 496
14.5 Utilization of Nanomaterials for the Production of Biofuel 497
14.5.1 Production of Biodiesel Using Nanocatalysts 497
14.5.2 Application of Nanomaterials for the Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 500
14.5.3 Application of Nanomaterials in Synthesis of Cellulase and Stability 501
14.5.4 Application of Nano-Materials in the Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass 501
14.5.5 Bio-Ethanol Production by Using Nanotechnology 502
14.5.6 Application of Nanotechnology in the Production of Bio-Ethanol or Cellulosic Ethanol 506
14.5.7 Up-Gradation of Biofuel by Using Nanotechnology 508
14.5.8 Use of Nanoparticles in Biorefinery 509
14.6 Conclusion 510
References 511
15 Experimental Investigation of Long Run Viability of Engine Oil Properties in DI Diesel Engine Fuelled with Diesel, Bioethanol and Biodiesel Blend 517
Dulari Hansdah and S. Murugan
15.1 Introduction 518
15.2 Materials and Method 519
15.2.1 Fuel Properties 520
15.3 Test Procedure 522
15.3.1 Engine Experimental Set Up 522
15.3.2 Methodology 525
15.4 Result Analysis 528
15.4.1 Wear Measurements of Different Components 528
15.4.2 Deposits of Carbon on the Various Engine Components 532
15.4.2.1 Cylinder Head and Piston Crown 532
15.4.2.2 Analysis Deposits on Fuel Injector 533
15.4.3 Analysis of Lubricating Oil 533
15.4.3.1 Effect of Crankcase Dilution 533
15.4.3.2 Analysis of Wear of Metals from Different Components 537
15.5 Conclusion 541
References 541
16 Studies on the Diesel Blends Oxidative Stability in Mixture with TBHQ Antioxidant and Soft Computation Approach Using ANN and RSM at Varying Blend Ratio 543
Ramesh Kasimani
16.1 Introduction 544
16.2 Materials and Methodology 545
16.2.1 Bio-Diesel Preparation and its Properties 545
16.2.2 Antioxidant Reagent 547
16.2.3 GC-MS Analysis 547
16.2.4 Oxidation Stability Determination 547
16.2.5 Uncertainty Analysis 548
16.2.6 Experimental Setup and Test Procedure 552
16.2.7 Response Surface Methodology 552
16.2.8 Artificial Neural Network 554
16.3 Results and Discussion 555
16.3.1 Oxidation Stability Analysis 555
16.3.2 Performance and Emission Characteristics of CIB Diesel Blends 556
16.3.3 Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption 556
16.3.4 Brake Thermal Efficiency 559
16.3.5 Carbon Monoxide 560
16.3.6 Hydrocarbon 561
16.3.7 Nitrogen Oxides 561
16.3.8 Carbon Dioxide 562
16.3.9 Performance and Emission Characteristics of CIB Diesel Blends + TBHQ 563
16.3.10 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption 563
16.3.11 Brake Thermal Efficiency 567
16.3.12 Carbon Monoxide 567
16.3.13 Hydrocarbon 568
16.3.14 Nitrogen Oxides 568
16.3.15 Carbon Dioxide 569
16.4 Response Surface Methodology for Performance Parameter 570
16.4.1 Non-Linear Regression Model for Performance Parameter 570
16.4.2 Fit Summary for BSFC 571
16.4.3 ANOVA for Performance Parameters 571
16.4.4 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for BSFC 571
16.4.5 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for BTE 576
16.4.6 Non-Linear Regression Model for Emission Parameter 578
16.4.7 Fit Summary for Emission Parameters 578
16.4.8 ANOVA for Emission Parameters 580
16.4.9 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for CO 586
16.4.10 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for HC 591
16.4.11 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for NOx 591
16.4.12 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for CO2 592
16.5 Modelling of ANN 593
16.5.1 Prediction of Performance Characteristics 596
16.5.2 Prediction of Emission Characteristics 597
16.6 Validation of RSM and ANN 599
16.7 Conclusion 606
References 608
17 Effect of Nanoparticles in Bio-Oil on the Performance, Combustion and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine 613
V.Dhana Raju, S.Rami Reddy, Harish Venu, Lingesan Subramani and Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar
17.1 Introduction 614
17.2 Materials and Methods 618
17.2.1 Waste Mango Seed Oil Extraction 618
17.2.2 Transesterification Process 619
17.2.3 Preparation of Alumina Nanoparticles 621
17.3 Experimental Setup 621
17.3.1 Error and Uncertainty Analysis 622
17.4 Results and Discussion 623
17.4.1 Mango Seed Biodiesel Yield 623
17.4.2 Characterization of Alumina Nanoparticles 624
17.4.3 Diverse Characteristics of Diesel Engine 625
17.4.3.1 Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) 626
17.4.3.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) 627
17.4.3.3 Cylinder Pressure (CP) 628
17.4.3.4 Heat Release Rate (HRR) 629
17.4.3.5 Carbon Monoxide Emissions (CO) 629
17.4.3.6 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (CO2) 630
17.4.3.7 Hydrocarbons Emissions (HC) 630
17.4.3.8 Nitrogen Oxides Emissions (NOX) 632
17.4.3.9 Smoke Opacity (SO) 632
17.5 Conclusions 633
Abbreviations 634
Nomenclature 634
References 635
18 Use of Optimization Techniques to Study the Engine Performance and Emission Analysis of Diesel Engine 639
Sakthivel R, Mohanraj T, Abbhijith H and Ganesh Kumar P
18.1 Introduction 640
18.1.1 Engine Performance Optimization 644
18.2 Engine Parameter Optimization Using Taguchi's S/N 645
18.3 Engine Parameter Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology 649
18.3.1 Analysis of Variance 652
18.4 Artificial Neural Networks 653
18.5 Genetic Algorithm 659
18.6 TOPSIS Algorithm 662
18.6.1 TOPSIS Method for Optimizing Engine Parameters 666
18.7 Grey Relational Analysis 669
18.8 Fuzzy Optimization 674
18.9 Conclusion 675
Abbreviations 676
References 676
19 Engine Performance and Emission Analysis of Biodiesel-Diesel and Biomass Pyrolytic Oil-Diesel Blended Oil: A Comparative Study 681
K. Adithya, C.M Jagadesh Kumar, C.G. Mohan, R. Prakash and N. Gunasekar
19.1 Introduction 682
19.2 Experimental Analysis 683
19.2.1 Production of Coconut Shell Pyrolysis Oil 683
19.2.2 Production of JME 685
19.3 Experimental Set-Up 685
19.3.1 Engine Specifications 686
19.3.2 Error Analysis 686
19.4 Results and Discussion 687
19.4.1 Performance Parameters 687
19.4.1.1 Brake Thermal Efficiency 687
19.4.1.2 BSFC 688
19.4.1.3 Exhaust Gas Temperature 688
19.4.2 Emission Parameters 689
19.4.2.1 Carbon Monoxide 689
19.4.2.2 Hydrocarbons 689
19.4.2.3 NOx Emissions 691
19.4.2.4 Smoke Opacity 691
19.5 Conclusion 692
References 693
20 Agro-Waste for Second-Generation Biofuels 697
Prakash Kumar Sarangi and Mousumi Meghamala Nayak
20.1 Introduction 697
20.2 Agro-Wastes 699
20.3 Value-Addition of Agro-Wastes 700
20.4 Production of Second-Generation Biofuels 702
20.4.1 Biogas 702
20.4.2 Biohydrogen 702
20.4.3 Bioethanol 703
20.4.4 Biobutanol 703
20.4.5 Biomethanol 704
20.4.6 Conclusion 705
References 706
Index 711
Krushna Prasad Shadangi, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, Odisha, India. He earned his doctorate in chemical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India. He has ten years of research experience in the field of biofuel technologies and has contributed eight book chapters in edited books. He has published 22 papers in peer reviewed SCI journals and is an editorial board member on five international journals.
