Microplastics in the Ecosphere
Air, Water, Soil, and Food
1. Edition June 2023
528 Pages, Hardcover
Professional Book
ISBN:
978-1-119-87950-3
John Wiley & Sons
Further versions
Microplastics in the Ecosphere
Discover the environmental impact of microplastics with this comprehensive resource
Microplastics are the minute quantities of plastic that result from industrial processes, household release and the breakdown of larger plastic items. Widespread reliance on plastic goods and, particularly, single-use plastics, which has been increased by the COVID-19 pandemic, has made microplastics ubiquitous; they can be found throughout the ecosphere, including in the bloodstreams of humans and other animals. As these plastics emerge as a potential threat to the environment and to public health, it has never been more critical to understand their distribution and environmental impact.
Microplastics in the Ecosphere aims to cultivate that understanding with a comprehensive overview of microplastics in terrestrial ecosystems. It analyzes microplastic distribution in aerosphere, hydrosphere, and soil, tracing these plastics from their production on land to their distribution--overwhelmingly--in maritime ecosystems. The result is a book that will inform researchers and policymakers as we look to tackle this emerging challenge globally.
Microplastics in the Ecosphere readers will also find:
* Introductory information about the production and distribution of single-use plastics
* An emphasis on management and mitigation strategies designed to reduce contamination over time
* A multidisciplinary approach, combining concepts and analytical techniques from a range of scientific fields
Microplastics in the Ecosphere is a valuable guide for researchers and scientists, advanced undergraduate and graduate students, industry professionals, and policymakers looking to understand the impact of these widespread materials.
List of Contributors xvii
Preface xxii
Section I Single Use Plastics 1
1 Scientometric Analysis of Microplastics across the Globe 3
Mansoor Ahmad Bhat, Fatma Nur Eraslan, Eftade O. Gaga, and Kadir Gedik
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Materials and Methods 5
1.3 Results and Discussion 5
1.3.1 Trends in Scientific Production and Citations 5
1.3.2 Top Funding Agencies 6
1.3.3 Top 10 Global Affiliations 7
1.3.4 Top Countries 8
1.3.5 Top 10 Databases and Journals 9
1.3.6 Top 10 Published Articles 9
1.3.7 Top 10 Author Keywords and Research Areas 10
1.4 Conclusion 11
Acknowledgments 12
References 12
2 Microplastic Pollution in the Polar Oceans - A Review 15
Manju P. Nair and Anu Gopinath
2.1 Introduction 15
2.1.1 Plastics 15
2.1.2 Plastic Pollution 15
2.1.3 Microplastics 16
2.1.4 Importance of Microplastic Pollution in the Polar Oceans 17
2.2 Polar Regions 17
2.2.1 General 17
2.2.2 Sea Ice 19
2.2.3 Water 19
2.2.4 Sediments 21
2.2.5 Biota 22
2.3 Future Perspectives 23
2.4 Conclusions 24
References 24
3 Microplastics - Global Scenario 29
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Environmental Issues of Plastic Waste 54
3.3 Coprocessing of Plastic Waste in Cement Kilns 55
3.4 Disposal of Plastic Waste Through Plasma Pyrolysis Technology (PPT) 56
3.4.1 Merits of PPT 57
References 59
4 The Single- Use Plastic Pandemic in the COVID- 19 Era 65
Fatma Nur Eraslan, Mansoor Ahmad Bhat, Kadir Gedik, and Eftade O. Gaga
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Materials and Methods 66
4.2.3 Estimation of the Daily Amount of Medical Waste in Hospitals 67
4.3.1 Personal Protective Equipment 67
4.3.2 Packaging SUPs 68
4.3.2.1 Trends in Plastic Waste Generation, Management, and Environmental Fate during the COVID- 19 Era 69
4.4.1 Environmental Impacts from SUP Waste 70
4.4.2 Management of SUP Waste 71
4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 72
References 72
Section II Microplastics in the Aerosphere 77
5 Atmospheric Microplastic Transport 79
Yudith Vega Paramitadevi, Ana Turyanti, Ersa Rishanti, Beata Ratnawati, Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan, and Nurani Ikhlas
5.1 The Phenomenon of Microplastic Transport 79
5.2 Factors Affecting Microplastic Transport 81
5.2.1 Types of MPs 81
5.2.2 Characteristics and Sources of Microplastics Emitters 81
5.2.3 Meteorological Conditions 82
5.2.4 Altitude and Surface Roughness 83
5.2.5 Microplastic Deposition Processes in the Ocean 83
5.2.6 Microplastics Deposition Processes in the Air 84
5.3 Microplastic Transport Modelling 85
5.3.1 Eulerian Method 87
References 92
6 Microplastics in the Atmosphere and Their Human and Eco Risks 97
Dhammika N. Magana- Arachchi and Rasika P. Wanigatunge
6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Microplastics in the Atmosphere 97
6.2.2 Chemical Composition 98
6.2.3 Sources of Microplastics 99
6.2.5 Effects of Climatic Conditions on MP Distribution 101
6.3 Impact of Microplastics on Human Health and the Eco Risk 102
6.3.2 Eco Risk 106
6.4 Strategies to Minimise Atmospheric MPs through Future Research 107
6.5 Conclusion 108
Acknowledgements 109
References 109
7 Sampling and Detection of Microplastics in the Atmosphere 113
Sudip Choudhury, Kuheli Deb, Saurav Paul, Bimal Bhusan Chakraborty, and Sunayana Goswami
7.1 Introduction 113
7.2 Classification 114
7.3.4 Biota 115
7.5 Detection and Characterisation of MPs in the Atmosphere 116
7.5.1 Microscopic Techniques for Detecting MPs 117
7.5.1.6 Hot Needle Technique 119
7.5.1.7 Digital Holography 119
7.5.2 Spectroscopic Techniques for Analysing MPs 120
7.6 Conclusion 121
Funding 121
References 121
8 Sources and Circulation of Microplastics in the Aerosphere - Atmospheric Transport of Microplastics 125
Gobishankar Sathyamohan, Madushika Sewwandi, Balram Ambade, and Meththika Vithanage
8.1 Introduction 125
8.1.1 Occurrence and Abundance of Atmospheric MP 126
8.1.2 Plastic Polymers and Their Properties 127
8.1.3 Sources and Pathways of MPs in the Atmosphere 129
8.2 Temporal and Spatial Trends in MP Accumulation 130
8.3 Formation of MPs 131
8.3.1 Physical Weathering 132
8.3.4 Photo- thermal Oxidation 133
8.3.5 Thermal Degradation 134
8.4.1 Wet Deposition 136
8.6 Predicting MP Dispersion and Transport 137
8.7 Eco- Environmental Impacts 138
8.8 Future Perspectives 139
References 140
Section III Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment 147
9 Interaction of Chemical Contaminants with Microplastics 149
Asitha T. Cooray, Janitha Walpita, Pabasari A. Koliyabandara, and Ishara U. Soyza
9.1 Introduction 149
9.2 Interactions 150
9.3 Mechanisms 152
9.3.3 Kinetics of the Sorption Process 154
9.3.5 Pseudo- Second- Order Model 155
9.3.8 Isotherm Models 156
9.5 Future Approaches 157
References 158
10 Microplastics in Freshwater Environments 163
Florin- Constantin Mihai, Laura A.T. Markley, Farhan R. Khan, Giuseppe Suaria, and Sedat Gundogdu
10.1 Introduction 163
10.2 Microplastics in Rivers and Tributaries 164
10.3 Microplastics in Lakes 166
10.4 Microplastics in Groundwater Sources 167
10.5 Microplastics in Glaciers and Ice Caps 168
10.6 Microplastics in Deltas 169
10.7 Conclusion 171
Acknowledgment 171
References 171
11 Microplastics in Landfill Leachate: Flow and Transport 177
Anna Kwarciak- KozBowska
11.1 Plastics and Microplastics 177
11.2 Microplastics in Landfill Leachate 180
11.3 Summary 183
Acknowledgments 183
References 183
12 Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment - Effects on Ocean Carbon Sequestration and Sustenance of Marine Life 189
Arunima Bhattacharya and Aryadeep Roychoudhury
12.1 Introduction 189
12.2 Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment 190
12.2.2.1 Chemical Nature 191
12.3.2.1 Effect on Phytoplankton Photosynthesis and Growth 192
12.3.2.2 Effect on Zooplankton Development and Reproduction 193
12.4 Microplastics and Marine Fauna 194
12.4.2.1 Shrimp 195
12.4.4 Effects on Marine Mammals 196
12.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 197
Acknowledgments 197
References 197
Section IV Microplastics in Soil Systems 201
13 Entry of Microplastics into Agroecosystems: A Serious Threat to Food Security and Human Health 203
Siril Singh, Sheenu Sharma, Rajni Yadav, and Anand Narain Singh
13.1 Introduction 203
13.2 Sources of Microplastics in Agroecosystems 204
13.2.3 Application of Sewage Sludge/Biosolids 205
13.2.6 Landfill Sites 206
13.3.2 Implications for Crop Plants and Food Security 209
13.4 Human Health Risks 211
13.5 Knowledge Gaps 212
13.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 212
Acknowledgments 213
References 213
14 Migration of Microplastic- Bound Contaminants to Soil and Their Effects 219
Marta Jaskulak and Katarzyna Zorena
14.1 Introduction 219
14.2 Microplastics as Sorbing Materials for Hazardous Chemicals 220
14.3 Types of Microplastic- Bound Contaminants in Soils 222
14.4 Effects of Exposure and Co- exposure in Soil - Consequences of Contaminant Sorption for MP Toxicity and Bioaccumulation 223
14.5 Microplastic- Bound Contaminants in Soils as Potential Threats to Human Health 224
14.6 Conclusions 226
References 226
15 Plastic Mulch- Derived Microplastics in Agricultural Soil Systems 233
Sammani Ramanayaka, Hao Zhang, and Kirk T. Semple
15.1 Plastic Mulch Films in Agriculture 233
15.2 Types of Synthetic Polymer Mulch Films 234
15.4 Mulch Microplastic Pollution in Soil 235
15.4.1 Influences of Mulch Microplastics on Soil Physical Properties 236
15.4.2.1 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 237
15.4.2.2 Soil pH 238
15.4.3 The Impact of Microplastics on Soil Biological Properties 239
15.5 Mulch Microplastics as a Vector 240
15.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives 242
References 243
16 Critical Review of Microplastics in Soil 249
Fábio C. Nunes, Lander de Jesus Alves, Cláudia C.N. de Carvalho, Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, and José R. de Souza Filho
16.1 Introduction 249
16.2 Sources and Transfer of Microplastics in Soils 251
16.3 Classification, Qualification, and Quantification of Microplastics in Soil 253
16.4 Effects and Risks of Microplastics on Soil Health 255
16.5 Analytical Methodologies for Microplastics in Soil 259
16.6 Epilogue and Future Perspectives 262
Acknowledgment 262
References 262
17 What Do We Know About the Effects of Microplastics on Soil? 271
Ana Paula Pinto, Teresa Ferreira, Ana V. Dordio, Alfredo Jorge Palace Carvalho, and Jorge M.S. Faria
17.1 Introduction 271
17.2 Why and How Do MPs End Up in the Soil? 272
17.2.1 Mulching Films 273
17.2.2 Sewage Sludge/Compost Application 274
17.2.3 Irrigation 275
17.4 Microplastics as Carriers of Soil Contaminants - Contaminant Vectors 277
17.4.1 MPs as Carriers of Metals and/or Metalloids 278
17.4.2 MPs as Carriers of Organic Pollutants 279
17.5 Microplastic Effects 280
17.5.2 MP Effects on Plant Growth Performance 283
17.5.3 MP Effects on Soil Nutrient Cycling 289
17.6 Conclusions and Perspectives for Future Research 291
References 292
18 Microbial Degradation of Plastics 305
Abin Sebastian, Aleena Maria Paul, Donia Dominic, Misriya Shaji, Priya Jose, Sarika Sasi, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
18.1 Introduction 305
18.2 Diversity of Plastic- Degrading Microbes 307
18.3 Mechanism of Microbe- Mediated Decomposition of Plastics 309
18.4 Molecular Factors in the Microbial Breakdown of Plastics 311
18.5 Microbes and Sustainable Degradation of Plastics 313
18.5.1 Outlook 315
References 316
19 Microplastics and Soil Nutrient Cycling 321
Madhuni Wijesooriya, Hasintha Wijesekara, Madushika Sewwandi, Sasimali Soysa, Anushka Upamali Rajapaksha, Meththika Vithanage, and Nanthi Bolan
19.1 Introduction 321
19.2 Microplastics in Soil 322
19.3 Effect of Microplastics on Nutrient Cycling 323
19.3.1 Soil Nitrogen Cycling 324
19.3.3 Soil Phosphorous Content 325
19.4 Effect of Microplastic- Driven Factors on Soil Nutrient Cycling 326
19.4.1 Properties of Microplastics 326
19.4.3 Soil Chemical Characteristics 329
19.4.4 Soil Physical Characteristics 330
19.4.5 Consequences of Microplastics for Nutrient Cycling and Implications 331
19.5 Mechanisms of Microplastic- Driven Plant Toxicity/Nutrient Uptake 332
19.6 Future Perspectives 333
References 333
Section V Microplastics in Food Systems 339
20 Microplastics in the Food Chain 341
Chamila V.L. Jayasinghe, Sharmila Jayatilake, H. Umesh K.D.Z. Rajapakse, N.K. Sandunika Kithmini, and K.M. Prakash M. Kulathunga
20.1 Introduction 341
20.2 Presence of Microplastics in the Food Chain 342
20.2.1 Transmission Through the Food Chain 343
20.2.2 Other Pathways Through Which Microplastics Enter Food 345
20.2.2.1 Transmission from Food Packaging 346
20.3 Possible Health Effects of Microplastics in Food 347
20.4 How to Minimize Microplastic Contamination in Food 348
20.4.1 Need for Research on the Realistic Ecological Impact of Microplastics 349
20.4.2 Effective Methods of Microplastic Detection and Removal 349
20.4.4 Efficient Disposal of Plastic Waste 350
20.5 Summary 350
References 351
21 Microplastics in Salt and Drinking Water 357
Muthumali U. Adikari, Nirmala Prasadi, and Chamila V.L. Jayasinghe
21.1 Microplastics in Salt 357
21.1.1 Introduction 357
21.1.1.1 Microplastics in Salt: Occurrence and Abundance 357
21.1.1.2 Microplastic Contamination in Different Salt Types 358
21.1.1.3 Estimated Consumption of Microplastics through Salt 360
21.2.1 Introduction 361
21.2.4 Microplastics in Drinking Water: Analytical Methods Used 363
21.2.5 Removal Strategies 364
21.3 Summary 365
References 365
22 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood (Invertebrates) and Seaweeds 369
Sanchala Gallage
22.1 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood and Seaweeds 369
22.1.3 Possible MP Accumulation Pathways in Commercial Seafood 371
22.1.4 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood and Seaweeds 372
22.1.4.2 Microplastics in Shrimp 373
22.1.4.3 Microplastics in Crabs 374
22.1.4.4 Microplastics in Lobsters 375
22.1.4.5 Microplastics in Sea Urchins and Sea Cucumbers 376
22.1.4.6 Microplastics in Seaweeds 377
22.1.5 Concluding Notes 377
Acknowledgement 378
References 378
23 Microplastic Toxicity to Humans 381
Magdalena MadeBa
23.1 Introduction 381
23.2 Ingestion of Microplastics 382
23.3 Human Exposure to Inhalation of Microplastics 384
23.4 Human Exposure to Dermal Contact with Microplastics 385
23.5 Conclusions 386
References 387
Section VI Treatment Technologies and Management 391
24 Management of Microplastics from Sources to Humans 393
Samanthika Senarath and Dinushi Kaushalya
24.1 Introduction 393
24.1.1 Composition and Characteristics of Microplastics 394
24.2 Classification and Sources of Microplastics 394
24.2.1 Sources of Human Exposure to Microplastics 395
24.3 Impact of Microplastics on Human Health 396
24.4 Social and Ecological Impacts of Microplastics 397
24.4.1 Management Strategies for Microplastics 398
24.4.1.1 Proper Management of Plastics and Plastic Waste 399
24.4.1.2 Use of Bio- based and Biodegradable Plastics 400
24.4.1.3 Improvement of Wastewater and Solid Waste Treatment Processes 400
24.5 Prospects in Microplastic Management 401
24.6 Summary 401
References 401
25 Single- Use Ordinary Plastics vs. Bioplastics 405
Iwona Zawieja
25.1 Ordinary Plastic - General Characteristics 405
25.2 Bioplastics - General Characteristics 406
25.3 Biodegradability of Bioplastics 408
25.5 Environmental Benefits of Using Bioplastic 410
25.6 Summary 412
Acknowledgments 412
References 413
Section VII Case Studies 415
26 Plastic Nurdles in Marine Environments Due to Accidental Spillage 417
Madushika Sewwandi, Santhirasekaram Keerthanan, Kalani Imalka Perera, and Meththika Vithanage
26.1 Introduction 417
26.1.2 Plastic Nurdles 418
26.2.2.1 Nurdle Distribution on Beaches in the Atlantic Ocean in the Twentieth Century 419
26.2.2.2 Nurdle Distribution on Beaches in the Atlantic Ocean in the Twenty- First Century 420
26.2.2.3 Nurdle Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea 421
26.3.2 Fate and Transport of Nurdles in Marine Systems 422
26.3.3 Impacts of Nurdle Spillage on the Marine Environment 423
26.4 X- Press Pearl Shipwreck - Case Study 424
26.4.1 Nurdle Spillage 424
26.4.3 Characteristics and Contamination of Spilled Nurdles 425
26.4.4 Possible Impacts 427
26.4.4.1 Marine Environment 428
26.4.4.5 Impact on the Economy 429
References 429
27 Compost- Hosted Microplastics - Municipal Solid Waste Compost 433
K.S.D. Premarathna, Sammani Ramanayaka, Ayanthie Navaratne, Hasintha Wijesekara, Jasintha Jayasanka, and Meththika Vithanage
27.1 Municipal Solid Waste 433
27.1.2 Composting Process as a Source of Microplastics 435
27.2.2 Sizes of microplastics 436
27.2.3 Characteristics of Compost- Hosted Microplastics 436
27.3 Impact of Microplastic- Contaminated Compost on Soil Properties 437
27.3.2 Impact on Soil Chemical Properties 438
27.4 Compost- Hosted Microplastics as a Vector 440
27.4.1 Effect on Soil Organisms 441
27.5 Future Perspectives 442
References 443
28 Single- Use Ordinary Plastics and Bioplastics - A Case Study in Brazil 449
Luís P. Azevedo, Carlos A.F. Lagarinhos, Denise C.R. Espinosa, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
28.1 Introduction 449
28.1.1 Municipality of São Paulo (the Largest in the Country) - State Law No. 15374/2011 451
28.1.2 State of Rio de Janeiro - State Law No. 8473/2019 451
28.1.3 Santos(SP) - Municipal Law 232/2019 452
28.1.4 Ilhabela(SP) - Municipal Law 598/2008 452
28.1.5 São Sebastião (SP) - Municipal Law 2590/2018 452
28.1.6 Natal (RN) - Municipal Law 295/2009 452
28.1.7 Fernando de Noronha Island (PE) - District Decree 002/2018 452
28.2.2 Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate (PBAT) Bioplastic 453
28.2.5 Shrimp Shell Bioplastic 454
28.2.9 Organic Waste Bioplastic 455
28.5 Energy Recovery 457
28.6 Public Policies 458
28.7 Impacts of Environmental Legislation 459
28.8 Challenges of Bioplastics Production 460
28.9 Conclusions 461
References 462
29 Microplastics Remediation - Possible Perspectives for Mitigating Saline Environments 465
Amir Parnian, Mehdi Mahbod, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
29.1 Introduction 465
29.2 Assimilation of Microplastics in Saline Water Bodies and Soil Ecosystems 467
29.3 Microplastic Self- Aging and Degradation: Hopes and Risks for the Ecosystem 468
29.4 Microplastics: Technologies for Remediating Saline Environments 468
29.5 Economic and Social Aspects of Microplastic Remediation in Saline Conditions 471
29.6 Conclusion: Hopes, and Resistance to Environmental Remediation to Achieve a Cleaner Environment 472
References 472
30 The Management of Waste Tires: A Case Study in Brazil 477
Carlos Alberto Ferreira Lagarinhos, Denise Crocce Romano Espinosa, Jorge Alberto Soares Tenório, and Luís Peres de Azevedo
30.1 Introduction 477
30.2 Methodology 478
30.3 Results and Discussions 479
30.3.4 Comparison Between Systems for Recycling Tires in the EU Countries, the United States, Japan, and Brazil 481
30.3.5 Technologies for Reuse, Recycling, and Energy Recovery 484
30.3.8 Tire Pyrolysis Process 486
30.3.9 Reclaimed Rubber and Rugs for Automobiles 486
30.3.11 Asphalt Rubber 487
30.4 Reverse Logistics Tires in Brazil 488
30.4.2 Recycling by Tire Manufacturers 490
30.6 Conclusions 495
References 496
Index 499
Preface xxii
Section I Single Use Plastics 1
1 Scientometric Analysis of Microplastics across the Globe 3
Mansoor Ahmad Bhat, Fatma Nur Eraslan, Eftade O. Gaga, and Kadir Gedik
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Materials and Methods 5
1.3 Results and Discussion 5
1.3.1 Trends in Scientific Production and Citations 5
1.3.2 Top Funding Agencies 6
1.3.3 Top 10 Global Affiliations 7
1.3.4 Top Countries 8
1.3.5 Top 10 Databases and Journals 9
1.3.6 Top 10 Published Articles 9
1.3.7 Top 10 Author Keywords and Research Areas 10
1.4 Conclusion 11
Acknowledgments 12
References 12
2 Microplastic Pollution in the Polar Oceans - A Review 15
Manju P. Nair and Anu Gopinath
2.1 Introduction 15
2.1.1 Plastics 15
2.1.2 Plastic Pollution 15
2.1.3 Microplastics 16
2.1.4 Importance of Microplastic Pollution in the Polar Oceans 17
2.2 Polar Regions 17
2.2.1 General 17
2.2.2 Sea Ice 19
2.2.3 Water 19
2.2.4 Sediments 21
2.2.5 Biota 22
2.3 Future Perspectives 23
2.4 Conclusions 24
References 24
3 Microplastics - Global Scenario 29
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Environmental Issues of Plastic Waste 54
3.3 Coprocessing of Plastic Waste in Cement Kilns 55
3.4 Disposal of Plastic Waste Through Plasma Pyrolysis Technology (PPT) 56
3.4.1 Merits of PPT 57
References 59
4 The Single- Use Plastic Pandemic in the COVID- 19 Era 65
Fatma Nur Eraslan, Mansoor Ahmad Bhat, Kadir Gedik, and Eftade O. Gaga
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Materials and Methods 66
4.2.3 Estimation of the Daily Amount of Medical Waste in Hospitals 67
4.3.1 Personal Protective Equipment 67
4.3.2 Packaging SUPs 68
4.3.2.1 Trends in Plastic Waste Generation, Management, and Environmental Fate during the COVID- 19 Era 69
4.4.1 Environmental Impacts from SUP Waste 70
4.4.2 Management of SUP Waste 71
4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 72
References 72
Section II Microplastics in the Aerosphere 77
5 Atmospheric Microplastic Transport 79
Yudith Vega Paramitadevi, Ana Turyanti, Ersa Rishanti, Beata Ratnawati, Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan, and Nurani Ikhlas
5.1 The Phenomenon of Microplastic Transport 79
5.2 Factors Affecting Microplastic Transport 81
5.2.1 Types of MPs 81
5.2.2 Characteristics and Sources of Microplastics Emitters 81
5.2.3 Meteorological Conditions 82
5.2.4 Altitude and Surface Roughness 83
5.2.5 Microplastic Deposition Processes in the Ocean 83
5.2.6 Microplastics Deposition Processes in the Air 84
5.3 Microplastic Transport Modelling 85
5.3.1 Eulerian Method 87
References 92
6 Microplastics in the Atmosphere and Their Human and Eco Risks 97
Dhammika N. Magana- Arachchi and Rasika P. Wanigatunge
6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Microplastics in the Atmosphere 97
6.2.2 Chemical Composition 98
6.2.3 Sources of Microplastics 99
6.2.5 Effects of Climatic Conditions on MP Distribution 101
6.3 Impact of Microplastics on Human Health and the Eco Risk 102
6.3.2 Eco Risk 106
6.4 Strategies to Minimise Atmospheric MPs through Future Research 107
6.5 Conclusion 108
Acknowledgements 109
References 109
7 Sampling and Detection of Microplastics in the Atmosphere 113
Sudip Choudhury, Kuheli Deb, Saurav Paul, Bimal Bhusan Chakraborty, and Sunayana Goswami
7.1 Introduction 113
7.2 Classification 114
7.3.4 Biota 115
7.5 Detection and Characterisation of MPs in the Atmosphere 116
7.5.1 Microscopic Techniques for Detecting MPs 117
7.5.1.6 Hot Needle Technique 119
7.5.1.7 Digital Holography 119
7.5.2 Spectroscopic Techniques for Analysing MPs 120
7.6 Conclusion 121
Funding 121
References 121
8 Sources and Circulation of Microplastics in the Aerosphere - Atmospheric Transport of Microplastics 125
Gobishankar Sathyamohan, Madushika Sewwandi, Balram Ambade, and Meththika Vithanage
8.1 Introduction 125
8.1.1 Occurrence and Abundance of Atmospheric MP 126
8.1.2 Plastic Polymers and Their Properties 127
8.1.3 Sources and Pathways of MPs in the Atmosphere 129
8.2 Temporal and Spatial Trends in MP Accumulation 130
8.3 Formation of MPs 131
8.3.1 Physical Weathering 132
8.3.4 Photo- thermal Oxidation 133
8.3.5 Thermal Degradation 134
8.4.1 Wet Deposition 136
8.6 Predicting MP Dispersion and Transport 137
8.7 Eco- Environmental Impacts 138
8.8 Future Perspectives 139
References 140
Section III Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment 147
9 Interaction of Chemical Contaminants with Microplastics 149
Asitha T. Cooray, Janitha Walpita, Pabasari A. Koliyabandara, and Ishara U. Soyza
9.1 Introduction 149
9.2 Interactions 150
9.3 Mechanisms 152
9.3.3 Kinetics of the Sorption Process 154
9.3.5 Pseudo- Second- Order Model 155
9.3.8 Isotherm Models 156
9.5 Future Approaches 157
References 158
10 Microplastics in Freshwater Environments 163
Florin- Constantin Mihai, Laura A.T. Markley, Farhan R. Khan, Giuseppe Suaria, and Sedat Gundogdu
10.1 Introduction 163
10.2 Microplastics in Rivers and Tributaries 164
10.3 Microplastics in Lakes 166
10.4 Microplastics in Groundwater Sources 167
10.5 Microplastics in Glaciers and Ice Caps 168
10.6 Microplastics in Deltas 169
10.7 Conclusion 171
Acknowledgment 171
References 171
11 Microplastics in Landfill Leachate: Flow and Transport 177
Anna Kwarciak- KozBowska
11.1 Plastics and Microplastics 177
11.2 Microplastics in Landfill Leachate 180
11.3 Summary 183
Acknowledgments 183
References 183
12 Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment - Effects on Ocean Carbon Sequestration and Sustenance of Marine Life 189
Arunima Bhattacharya and Aryadeep Roychoudhury
12.1 Introduction 189
12.2 Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment 190
12.2.2.1 Chemical Nature 191
12.3.2.1 Effect on Phytoplankton Photosynthesis and Growth 192
12.3.2.2 Effect on Zooplankton Development and Reproduction 193
12.4 Microplastics and Marine Fauna 194
12.4.2.1 Shrimp 195
12.4.4 Effects on Marine Mammals 196
12.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 197
Acknowledgments 197
References 197
Section IV Microplastics in Soil Systems 201
13 Entry of Microplastics into Agroecosystems: A Serious Threat to Food Security and Human Health 203
Siril Singh, Sheenu Sharma, Rajni Yadav, and Anand Narain Singh
13.1 Introduction 203
13.2 Sources of Microplastics in Agroecosystems 204
13.2.3 Application of Sewage Sludge/Biosolids 205
13.2.6 Landfill Sites 206
13.3.2 Implications for Crop Plants and Food Security 209
13.4 Human Health Risks 211
13.5 Knowledge Gaps 212
13.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 212
Acknowledgments 213
References 213
14 Migration of Microplastic- Bound Contaminants to Soil and Their Effects 219
Marta Jaskulak and Katarzyna Zorena
14.1 Introduction 219
14.2 Microplastics as Sorbing Materials for Hazardous Chemicals 220
14.3 Types of Microplastic- Bound Contaminants in Soils 222
14.4 Effects of Exposure and Co- exposure in Soil - Consequences of Contaminant Sorption for MP Toxicity and Bioaccumulation 223
14.5 Microplastic- Bound Contaminants in Soils as Potential Threats to Human Health 224
14.6 Conclusions 226
References 226
15 Plastic Mulch- Derived Microplastics in Agricultural Soil Systems 233
Sammani Ramanayaka, Hao Zhang, and Kirk T. Semple
15.1 Plastic Mulch Films in Agriculture 233
15.2 Types of Synthetic Polymer Mulch Films 234
15.4 Mulch Microplastic Pollution in Soil 235
15.4.1 Influences of Mulch Microplastics on Soil Physical Properties 236
15.4.2.1 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 237
15.4.2.2 Soil pH 238
15.4.3 The Impact of Microplastics on Soil Biological Properties 239
15.5 Mulch Microplastics as a Vector 240
15.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives 242
References 243
16 Critical Review of Microplastics in Soil 249
Fábio C. Nunes, Lander de Jesus Alves, Cláudia C.N. de Carvalho, Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, and José R. de Souza Filho
16.1 Introduction 249
16.2 Sources and Transfer of Microplastics in Soils 251
16.3 Classification, Qualification, and Quantification of Microplastics in Soil 253
16.4 Effects and Risks of Microplastics on Soil Health 255
16.5 Analytical Methodologies for Microplastics in Soil 259
16.6 Epilogue and Future Perspectives 262
Acknowledgment 262
References 262
17 What Do We Know About the Effects of Microplastics on Soil? 271
Ana Paula Pinto, Teresa Ferreira, Ana V. Dordio, Alfredo Jorge Palace Carvalho, and Jorge M.S. Faria
17.1 Introduction 271
17.2 Why and How Do MPs End Up in the Soil? 272
17.2.1 Mulching Films 273
17.2.2 Sewage Sludge/Compost Application 274
17.2.3 Irrigation 275
17.4 Microplastics as Carriers of Soil Contaminants - Contaminant Vectors 277
17.4.1 MPs as Carriers of Metals and/or Metalloids 278
17.4.2 MPs as Carriers of Organic Pollutants 279
17.5 Microplastic Effects 280
17.5.2 MP Effects on Plant Growth Performance 283
17.5.3 MP Effects on Soil Nutrient Cycling 289
17.6 Conclusions and Perspectives for Future Research 291
References 292
18 Microbial Degradation of Plastics 305
Abin Sebastian, Aleena Maria Paul, Donia Dominic, Misriya Shaji, Priya Jose, Sarika Sasi, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
18.1 Introduction 305
18.2 Diversity of Plastic- Degrading Microbes 307
18.3 Mechanism of Microbe- Mediated Decomposition of Plastics 309
18.4 Molecular Factors in the Microbial Breakdown of Plastics 311
18.5 Microbes and Sustainable Degradation of Plastics 313
18.5.1 Outlook 315
References 316
19 Microplastics and Soil Nutrient Cycling 321
Madhuni Wijesooriya, Hasintha Wijesekara, Madushika Sewwandi, Sasimali Soysa, Anushka Upamali Rajapaksha, Meththika Vithanage, and Nanthi Bolan
19.1 Introduction 321
19.2 Microplastics in Soil 322
19.3 Effect of Microplastics on Nutrient Cycling 323
19.3.1 Soil Nitrogen Cycling 324
19.3.3 Soil Phosphorous Content 325
19.4 Effect of Microplastic- Driven Factors on Soil Nutrient Cycling 326
19.4.1 Properties of Microplastics 326
19.4.3 Soil Chemical Characteristics 329
19.4.4 Soil Physical Characteristics 330
19.4.5 Consequences of Microplastics for Nutrient Cycling and Implications 331
19.5 Mechanisms of Microplastic- Driven Plant Toxicity/Nutrient Uptake 332
19.6 Future Perspectives 333
References 333
Section V Microplastics in Food Systems 339
20 Microplastics in the Food Chain 341
Chamila V.L. Jayasinghe, Sharmila Jayatilake, H. Umesh K.D.Z. Rajapakse, N.K. Sandunika Kithmini, and K.M. Prakash M. Kulathunga
20.1 Introduction 341
20.2 Presence of Microplastics in the Food Chain 342
20.2.1 Transmission Through the Food Chain 343
20.2.2 Other Pathways Through Which Microplastics Enter Food 345
20.2.2.1 Transmission from Food Packaging 346
20.3 Possible Health Effects of Microplastics in Food 347
20.4 How to Minimize Microplastic Contamination in Food 348
20.4.1 Need for Research on the Realistic Ecological Impact of Microplastics 349
20.4.2 Effective Methods of Microplastic Detection and Removal 349
20.4.4 Efficient Disposal of Plastic Waste 350
20.5 Summary 350
References 351
21 Microplastics in Salt and Drinking Water 357
Muthumali U. Adikari, Nirmala Prasadi, and Chamila V.L. Jayasinghe
21.1 Microplastics in Salt 357
21.1.1 Introduction 357
21.1.1.1 Microplastics in Salt: Occurrence and Abundance 357
21.1.1.2 Microplastic Contamination in Different Salt Types 358
21.1.1.3 Estimated Consumption of Microplastics through Salt 360
21.2.1 Introduction 361
21.2.4 Microplastics in Drinking Water: Analytical Methods Used 363
21.2.5 Removal Strategies 364
21.3 Summary 365
References 365
22 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood (Invertebrates) and Seaweeds 369
Sanchala Gallage
22.1 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood and Seaweeds 369
22.1.3 Possible MP Accumulation Pathways in Commercial Seafood 371
22.1.4 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood and Seaweeds 372
22.1.4.2 Microplastics in Shrimp 373
22.1.4.3 Microplastics in Crabs 374
22.1.4.4 Microplastics in Lobsters 375
22.1.4.5 Microplastics in Sea Urchins and Sea Cucumbers 376
22.1.4.6 Microplastics in Seaweeds 377
22.1.5 Concluding Notes 377
Acknowledgement 378
References 378
23 Microplastic Toxicity to Humans 381
Magdalena MadeBa
23.1 Introduction 381
23.2 Ingestion of Microplastics 382
23.3 Human Exposure to Inhalation of Microplastics 384
23.4 Human Exposure to Dermal Contact with Microplastics 385
23.5 Conclusions 386
References 387
Section VI Treatment Technologies and Management 391
24 Management of Microplastics from Sources to Humans 393
Samanthika Senarath and Dinushi Kaushalya
24.1 Introduction 393
24.1.1 Composition and Characteristics of Microplastics 394
24.2 Classification and Sources of Microplastics 394
24.2.1 Sources of Human Exposure to Microplastics 395
24.3 Impact of Microplastics on Human Health 396
24.4 Social and Ecological Impacts of Microplastics 397
24.4.1 Management Strategies for Microplastics 398
24.4.1.1 Proper Management of Plastics and Plastic Waste 399
24.4.1.2 Use of Bio- based and Biodegradable Plastics 400
24.4.1.3 Improvement of Wastewater and Solid Waste Treatment Processes 400
24.5 Prospects in Microplastic Management 401
24.6 Summary 401
References 401
25 Single- Use Ordinary Plastics vs. Bioplastics 405
Iwona Zawieja
25.1 Ordinary Plastic - General Characteristics 405
25.2 Bioplastics - General Characteristics 406
25.3 Biodegradability of Bioplastics 408
25.5 Environmental Benefits of Using Bioplastic 410
25.6 Summary 412
Acknowledgments 412
References 413
Section VII Case Studies 415
26 Plastic Nurdles in Marine Environments Due to Accidental Spillage 417
Madushika Sewwandi, Santhirasekaram Keerthanan, Kalani Imalka Perera, and Meththika Vithanage
26.1 Introduction 417
26.1.2 Plastic Nurdles 418
26.2.2.1 Nurdle Distribution on Beaches in the Atlantic Ocean in the Twentieth Century 419
26.2.2.2 Nurdle Distribution on Beaches in the Atlantic Ocean in the Twenty- First Century 420
26.2.2.3 Nurdle Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea 421
26.3.2 Fate and Transport of Nurdles in Marine Systems 422
26.3.3 Impacts of Nurdle Spillage on the Marine Environment 423
26.4 X- Press Pearl Shipwreck - Case Study 424
26.4.1 Nurdle Spillage 424
26.4.3 Characteristics and Contamination of Spilled Nurdles 425
26.4.4 Possible Impacts 427
26.4.4.1 Marine Environment 428
26.4.4.5 Impact on the Economy 429
References 429
27 Compost- Hosted Microplastics - Municipal Solid Waste Compost 433
K.S.D. Premarathna, Sammani Ramanayaka, Ayanthie Navaratne, Hasintha Wijesekara, Jasintha Jayasanka, and Meththika Vithanage
27.1 Municipal Solid Waste 433
27.1.2 Composting Process as a Source of Microplastics 435
27.2.2 Sizes of microplastics 436
27.2.3 Characteristics of Compost- Hosted Microplastics 436
27.3 Impact of Microplastic- Contaminated Compost on Soil Properties 437
27.3.2 Impact on Soil Chemical Properties 438
27.4 Compost- Hosted Microplastics as a Vector 440
27.4.1 Effect on Soil Organisms 441
27.5 Future Perspectives 442
References 443
28 Single- Use Ordinary Plastics and Bioplastics - A Case Study in Brazil 449
Luís P. Azevedo, Carlos A.F. Lagarinhos, Denise C.R. Espinosa, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
28.1 Introduction 449
28.1.1 Municipality of São Paulo (the Largest in the Country) - State Law No. 15374/2011 451
28.1.2 State of Rio de Janeiro - State Law No. 8473/2019 451
28.1.3 Santos(SP) - Municipal Law 232/2019 452
28.1.4 Ilhabela(SP) - Municipal Law 598/2008 452
28.1.5 São Sebastião (SP) - Municipal Law 2590/2018 452
28.1.6 Natal (RN) - Municipal Law 295/2009 452
28.1.7 Fernando de Noronha Island (PE) - District Decree 002/2018 452
28.2.2 Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate (PBAT) Bioplastic 453
28.2.5 Shrimp Shell Bioplastic 454
28.2.9 Organic Waste Bioplastic 455
28.5 Energy Recovery 457
28.6 Public Policies 458
28.7 Impacts of Environmental Legislation 459
28.8 Challenges of Bioplastics Production 460
28.9 Conclusions 461
References 462
29 Microplastics Remediation - Possible Perspectives for Mitigating Saline Environments 465
Amir Parnian, Mehdi Mahbod, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
29.1 Introduction 465
29.2 Assimilation of Microplastics in Saline Water Bodies and Soil Ecosystems 467
29.3 Microplastic Self- Aging and Degradation: Hopes and Risks for the Ecosystem 468
29.4 Microplastics: Technologies for Remediating Saline Environments 468
29.5 Economic and Social Aspects of Microplastic Remediation in Saline Conditions 471
29.6 Conclusion: Hopes, and Resistance to Environmental Remediation to Achieve a Cleaner Environment 472
References 472
30 The Management of Waste Tires: A Case Study in Brazil 477
Carlos Alberto Ferreira Lagarinhos, Denise Crocce Romano Espinosa, Jorge Alberto Soares Tenório, and Luís Peres de Azevedo
30.1 Introduction 477
30.2 Methodology 478
30.3 Results and Discussions 479
30.3.4 Comparison Between Systems for Recycling Tires in the EU Countries, the United States, Japan, and Brazil 481
30.3.5 Technologies for Reuse, Recycling, and Energy Recovery 484
30.3.8 Tire Pyrolysis Process 486
30.3.9 Reclaimed Rubber and Rugs for Automobiles 486
30.3.11 Asphalt Rubber 487
30.4 Reverse Logistics Tires in Brazil 488
30.4.2 Recycling by Tire Manufacturers 490
30.6 Conclusions 495
References 496
Index 499
Meththika Vithanage, PhD is a Professor and founding Director of the Ecosphere Resilience Research Centre, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. She holds adjunct professor positions in the UWA, Australia, UPES, India and NIFS, Sri Lanka. She has published more widely than any other environmental science researcher in Sri Lanka. She is a Highly Cited Researcher and publishes widely in the field of Environmental Science.
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, PhD is Emeritus Professor at the School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India. He has decades of experience teaching and publishing on environmental science subjects, and his awards include the 2007 Pitamber Pant National Environment Fellowship by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India.
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, PhD is Emeritus Professor at the School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India. He has decades of experience teaching and publishing on environmental science subjects, and his awards include the 2007 Pitamber Pant National Environment Fellowship by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India.
